Alkali‐activated slag (AAS) materials, composed of blast furnace slag as precursor and alkali solutions as activators, are emerging as sustainable alternatives in construction due to their significantly lower CO₂ emissions compared to traditional Portland cement (PC) ‐based materials. These cement‐free binders often demonstrate comparable or even superior mechanical properties and chemical resistance. However, long‐term durability remains a concern, particularly in humid environments where AAS materials are more susceptible to degradation than PC materials.

Leaching has been identified as the primary deterioration phenomenon in AAS materials under humid environments, yet the underlying mechanisms remain poorly understood. Additionally, efflorescence, characterised by white deposits on the material surface, is believed to be a consequence of leaching. However, the relationship between leaching and efflorescence in AAS materials remains unclear, necessitating further investigation. This thesis aims to bridge these knowledge gaps by investigating the leaching behaviour of AAS materials at multiple scales and developing effective strategies to mitigate efflorescence....

Due to aging, increase in service loads, and/or upgrade of design codes, many existing concrete structures do not, or soon will not satisfy the required load-bearing capacity. Therefore, measures such as reconstruction or repair are necessary. Among various strengthening methods, ultra-high performance fiber reinforced concrete (UHPFRC), due to its high mechanical properties and superior durability, has emerged as a promising solution for strengthening concrete structures by enhancing load and deformation capacity, and improving durability. While extensive research has been conducted on the use of UHPFRC for flexural strengthening, studies focused on shear strengthening remain limited. After strengthening, the interface between UHPFRC and traditional reinforced concrete (RC) structures is formed. However, interface behavior has not been thoroughly investigated, further posing a gap in understanding the optimal strengthening design of UHPFRC in hybrid UHPFRC-concrete systems.

This dissertation focuses on the shear performance of concrete structures strengthened with UHPFRC, with a focus on the interface behavior between UHPFRC and normal concrete, and the mechanical properties of UHPFRC.

To assess the shear strengthening efficiency of UHPFRC, this dissertation starts with a literature review (Chapter 2) that addresses three major aspects. The first aspect focuses on the shear performance of hybrid UHPFRC-RC structures. Strengthening applications of UHPFRC in shear, and current analytical and numerical methods to predict the shear capacity of RC structures strengthened with UHPFRC are critically analyzed. The second aspect is focused on the UHPFRC-concrete interface behavior which is governing the response of the hybrid beams. From the review, the role of governing parameters on the interface behavior, including the effects of bonding technique, moisture exchange between the two materials, differential shrinkage and the role of coupled environmental and mechanical loads, are discussed. The final aspect deals with the application of non-destructive techniques (NDTs) to assess the strengthening efficiency of UHPFRC, focusing on evaluation of (i) UHPFRC material properties and (ii) UHPFRC-concrete interface performance in hybrid structures.

Experimental design is presented in Chapter 3, where the material and structural tests are systematically introduced. This chapter provides a series of material tests to, among others, characterize the workability, shrinkage and mechanical properties of both UHPFRC and normal concrete (NC). It also introduces the design and setup of a comprehensive structural test to evaluate the shear performance of UHPFRC-strengthened RC beams. Following the experimental methodology from Chapter 3, Chapter 4 presents the results of the material and structural tests. Through comparative analysis, this chapter examines the material and structural behavior of UHPFRC-strengthened beams and its constituents by varying different parameters, thereby setting a basis for evaluating the shear improvement in strengthened RC beams. In order to provide a deeper analysis on the UHPFRC-concrete interface quality in strengthened beams, Chapter 5 focuses on the assessment of possible delamination between UHPFRC and existing concrete by applying active infrared thermography. Combined with both experimental and numerical analysis, a systematic procedure is developed to detect subsurface delamination in hybrid UHPFRC-NC specimens. Besides the interface properties, another governing parameter, namely the material properties of UHPFRC, is examined in Chapter 6. This chapter investigates the fiber distribution and orientation within UHPFRC elements, important factors influencing material properties of UHPFRC, and therefore further affecting its shear strengthening efficiency. Using a calibrated electromagnetic method and validated through x-ray computed tomography (CT scanning), the effect of governing parameters, including casting direction and vibration time, on fiber distribution and orientation in UHPFRC elements is investigated. This chapter helps to clarify the connection between the material properties of UHPFRC and its structural performance.

Based on the structural test results (Chapter 4), evaluation of interface properties (Chapter 5) and material properties of UHPFRC (Chapter 6), in Chapter 7, a numerical model is developed to simulate shear performance of UHPFRC strengthened concrete structures, validated by the experimental results. A parametric study is further conducted to investigate key factors including interface properties, UHPFRC tensile behavior and non-uniform fiber distribution in UHPFRC. The numerical analysis offers insights on the influence of these parameters on shear strengthening efficiency.

In the final Chapter 8, the findings regarding the overall shear strengthening performance of UHPFRC in RC beams are given, providing practical insights for optimizing UHPFRC applications in concrete structures. Finally, suggestions for future research are given.

Uncontrolled cracking in reinforced concrete structures accelerates durability issues by creating pathways for external agents to penetrate the matrix, often leading to costly repairs and reduced service life. This dissertation addresses these challenges through the development of a self-healing strain-hardening cementitious composite (SHCC) designed specifically for application in the concrete cover zone.

This thesis adopted a multi-faceted methodology. First, a self-healing SHCC material was developed, featuring bacteria-embedded polylactic acid (PLA) capsules to realize controlled microcracking and robust healing. Next, the research introduced a localized application strategy to address the cost-effectiveness of this material. By applying the self-healing SHCC exclusively to the concrete cover zone, the region most critical to durability, this approach minimizes unnecessary use of healing agents, balancing performance with economic viability. To validate the concept, experimental and numerical analyses were conducted to evaluate the performance of hybrid beams with self-healing SHCC covers. Furthermore, different manufacturing methods, including prefabrication and 3d printing, were explored. Lastly, design strategies were proposed to incorporate the self-healing benefits into structural service life models. The feasibility of the developed system was demonstrated at full scale by applying it in the construction of a tramline.

The study revealed that the incorporation of PLA capsules into SHCC significantly improved crack-healing efficiency while maintaining critical tensile properties. It was found that the fibre/matrix bond properties were enhanced by the addition of the HA. As a result, the addition of healing agents reduced residual crack widths by up to 70%, ensuring faster and more robust healing under varied conditions.

At the structural level, hybrid beams with SHCC covers exhibited enhanced performance. Beams with SHCC applied in the bottom cover zone demonstrated improved flexural behaviour, with controlled crack patterns and reduced crack widths, attributed to the optimized interface condition between the SHCC cover and concrete core. A novel type of SHCC/concrete interface that features a weakened chemical adhesion, but an enhanced mechanical interlock bonding was developed to facilitate the activation of SHCC. Similarly, hybrid beams with lateral SHCC layers showed a notable increase in shear resistance under critical loading conditions. Numerical simulations supported these experimental findings, revealing the importance of the interface condition between SHCC cover and concrete core.

For the developed self-healing cover system to be applied in structures, it is necessary to consider the implications of healing during the design process. Analysis of this thesis shows that, by refining existing engineering models to include the impact of cracks, it becomes possible to predict and design the healing effects under specific scenarios.
To further demonstrate the self-healing cover concept, the developed self-healing SHCC was applied in a full-scale construction project where stringent requirements for tensile performance and crack healing properties are essential. The project showcased the feasibility of large-scale mixing, pumping, and application of the self-healing SHCC system.

This thesis contributes to the field of self-healing concrete by advancing material performance, structural application techniques, and design integration. By focusing on localized and practical implementations, the research bridges the gap between experimental advancements and full-scale applications where traditional solutions do not meet demands. The findings underscore the potential of self-healing concrete to extend the service life of structures without imposing substantial additional costs.

Self-healing concrete technology has been widely investigated in the past decade as a solution against degradation and/or loss of functionality in cracked concrete elements. Many self-healing mechanisms have been proposed and proven to work experimentally in the literature. Among these systems, the use of encapsulated mineral-producing healing agents seems to be the best working combination of components to successfully heal the cracks. The involved triggering-healing mechanisms usually consist of complex physical phenomena. Hence proper optimization of the proposed self-healing material is not possible through often resource- and time-consuming experimental campaigns. Instead, numerical modelling could be a useful tool for timely and exhaustive investigation of the self-healing mechanisms, as well as the design of appropriate experimental setups. Yet, while research on self-healing concrete seems to keep growing, comparatively the amount of modelling work devoted to the optimized design of the material has not advanced.
This thesis aims to provide a modelling framework for the study of the main aspects of a capsule-based self-healing cement-based system, namely the mechanical triggering of the self-healing system, the healing process itself and the assessment of the recovered property.
For the self-healing mechanism to work, the triggering of enough capsules along the crack is desired. Notwithstanding, this crack steering optimization comes at the expense of proper mechanical behaviour of the composite. Whereas the earlier aspect has been studied in the past, in this thesis a numerical optimization of the triggering of capsules is carried out taking into account also the achievement of acceptable mechanical performance of the material. To illustrate this, the case of self-healing cement paste with bacteria-embedded polylactic acid (PLA) capsules was selected. A 3D mesoscale lattice model was implemented herein to simulate a uniaxial tensile test on the system composed of cement paste, PLA capsule and their interface. Previous studies on the mechanical behaviour of cement paste with inclusions (i.e. capsules) have shown that the interface transition zone around the inclusion presents microstructural and mechanical properties that are totally different from those of the matrix. Therefore, a meticulous study was first conducted to obtain the mechanical properties of the interface of various types of PLA capsules with respect to bulk cement paste. Nanoindentation was performed to obtain maps of hardness and elastic modulus in the interfaces. 2D microscale lattice modelling of uniaxial tensile test on the mapped locations was performed then to obtain the overall tensile strength and stiffness of the interface. Moreover, hydrates assemblage and chemical composition around the PLA particles were studied through Backscattering Electron images and Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy. The ratios between resulting tensile strength and elastic modulus of the interface with respect to bulk paste were obtained for each PLA type which were then used as input for the mesoscale model. Cement paste samples with PLA capsules were imaged through X-ray micro Computed Tomography before and after fracture to obtain the capsules distribution to input in the mesoscale model and the fracture surface for validation, respectively. The experimental and simulated stress-strain curves showed excellent correspondence, especially on the elastic phase, hence validating the proposed model. An exhaustive numerical investigation of the material was performed then to analyse the influence of dosage, size and shape of the PLA capsules, as well as of the interface properties on the mechanical behaviour of the composite and the triggering of the PLA capsules. The results show that interface properties close to but lower than the cement matrix do not entail substantial losses of tensile strength and elastic modulus, whereas the amount of triggered capsules is maximized. Optimum dosage, shape and size of the PLA capsules were also obtained.
To illustrate the healing process and the recovery of the functional property within the proposed modelling framework, the case of crack self-sealing in cement mortar with superabsorbent polymers (SAP) was investigated. These healing admixtures steer the crack propagation and become exposed along the fracture surface. Upon contact with ingress water they immediately absorb water and swell, thus providing a water-blocking effect and preventing harming species to further penetrate into the mortar matrix from the crack surfaces. In order to design such self-sealing systems in an efficient way, a three-dimensional mesoscale lattice model is proposed to simulate capillary absorption of water in sound and cracked cement-based materials containing SAP. The numerical results yield the moisture content distribution in cracked and sound domain, as well as the absorption and swelling of SAP embedded in the matrix and in the crack. In a first instance, the model was validated for mortar without SAP, by means of time-resolved X-ray micro Computed Tomography. Additionally, the water absorption and swelling of SAP embedded within the mortar were imaged and quantified over time to better model their role during capillary water absorption in such composite materials. The performance of the model with the presence of SAP was validated by using experimental data from the literature, as well as experimentally-informed input parameters. The validated model was then used to investigate the role of SAP properties and dosage in cementitious mixtures, on the water penetration into the material from cracks. Furthermore different crack widths were considered in the simulations. The model shows good agreement with experimental results. The obtained results show that increasing the SAP water absorption capacity, while reducing their cement solution absorption capacity improves the crack self-sealing effect more efficiently than increasing their dosage. Other guidelines for the selection of appropriate SAP are given for different crack widths. Moreover, it is suggested that capillary water absorption test in cracked concrete is sensitive enough to detect small localized changes in crack width due to the healing of the cracks.

The Interfacial Transition Zone (ITZ) in Fiber Reinforced Concrete (FRC) fibre-reinforced concrete is the microscopic zone between the fibres and the cement matrix, which is essential to the overall performance of the composites. To explore the micro-mechanical properties of the ITZ, a combined experimental and numerical study was carried out targeting this microscopic area. Specifically, an indentation splitting test was developed and the single fibre pullout test was conducted. Those two test methods were then simulated to give a comprehensive understanding of the mechanical behaviour and fracture patterns of the interface.

For the indentation splitting test, micro-cubes (300 μm long) containing a segment of vertically aligned microfibre were prepared using CEM I, CEM III and CEM III mixed with limestone powder at varying water-to-cement (w/c) ratios from 0.3 to 0.5. These specimens were then subjected to a splitting test under a nano-indenter equipped with a wedge tip, and the results were compared to those of microcubes without fibres. Mechanical properties including load capacity, deformation at peak, stiffness and fracture energy were analysed. Following the experiment, lattice models with simplified and realistic microstructure were built. For the lattice model with simplified microstructure, the mechanical properties of local phases were calibrated with the experimental results. The modelling result shows that the material properties of the ITZ are approximately equivalent to 20% of the paste properties regardless of the w/c ratio. The lattice models with realistic microstructure were built based on 3D CT scans of the micro prisms with. For the 3D reconstructed digitallattice model with real microstructure, two material assignment methods, thresholding and greyscale mapping, were compared. The simulation results showed significant differences between the two methods, which may be attributed to the empirical parameters used to calculate tensile strength.

Furthermore, the single fibre pullout test was conducted to examine the interphase properties and compared with the experimental result of the indentation splitting tensile test. Results show that CEM I demonstrates the highest chemical bond energy (Gd) among the tested materials, decreasing significantly with an increase in the w/c ratio. In contrast, CEM III+L displays an inconsistent trend, with the highest Gd observed at a w/c ratio of 0.4. However, the experimental results for frictional bond strength (τ0) and slip-hardening coefficient (β) do not exhibit significant trends or differences. The simulation of single fibre pullout accurately captures the initial load phases up to full debonding.

The developed indentation splitting test offers a valuable method for assessing the tensile properties of the ITZ. The modelling results indicate that the mechanical properties of the ITZ are approximately 20% of those of the bulk paste. This finding can be integrated into larger-scale simulations by incorporating the effects of the ITZ. Coupled with the lattice model, this approach provides an effective way to enhance the fibre-matrix ITZ of FRC. Additionally, the insights from this study can be leveraged to optimize the design and performance of FRC, potentially leading to cost savings and extended durability in construction projects.

The emergence of innovative construction materials is dawning a new era of ambition within the civil engineering community. Among these innovative materials, Basalt Fibre Reinforced Polymer (BFRP) has recently surfaced with promising potential as a reinforcing material in concrete. Currently, in the Dutch concrete construction industry, the choice for reinforcement steel has remained unchanged for the past decades. However, the increasing availability of innovative alternatives could help the transition to a more sustainable concrete industry. Although BFRP has promising potential for application in concrete structures, the global application has not been established yet. One of the reasons for this limited research into the structural behaviour of concrete structures reinforced with BFRP-bars. Furthermore, the limited development of codes specifically designed for concrete reinforced with BFRP-bars and the modest availability compared to reinforcement steel also play into the unknowns about the material.

BFRP-bars contain certain qualities that reinforcement steel does not. One of the most prominent is resistance against corrosion due to environmental influences on concrete structures. This eliminates the requirement for the concrete cover to protect the reinforcement from corrosion. Hence, the concrete cover only serves its purpose to ensure effective bond action between the reinforcement bars and the concrete. This inherent quality of BFRP-bars eases the crack width control requirements in the codes for the design of structures reinforced with BFRP-bars to a range of 0.5 mm to 0.7 mm. Although this is a significant increase in comparison to the Eurocode for concrete structures (0.2 mm to 0.4 mm), the properties of BFRP-bars cause larger crack width development.

The aim of the experiment is to investigate the flexural behaviour of concrete beams reinforced with BFRP-bars as tensile reinforcement. The flexural behaviour of concrete structures reinforced with BFRP-bars is studied both experimentally and numerically. The research program contains 6 beams differing in reinforcement material, concrete covers, reinforcement ratio and bar diameters. To investigate the effects of the concrete cover, 2 beams are designed with concrete covers of 31 mm and 11 mm containing 3 BFRP-bars with a diameter of 8 mm in
the tension zone. To compare the behaviour of these beams, 2 identical beams with reinforcement steel are designed. To determine the effects of the reinforcement bar diameter, 1 beam is designed with 2 bars with a diameter of 10 mm. The reinforcement ratio in beams remains approximately equal, hence the only changing parameter is the bar diameter. The effects reinforcement ratio is investigated by a beam designed with 2 bars with a diameter of 8 mm. By keeping the bar diameter and the concrete cover the same, the reinforcement ratio is the only changing parameter for this beam. By subjecting the beams to a 4-point bending test, a fully developed crack pattern can be established over a certain length. By using digital image correlation (DIC), the flexural behaviour is monitored and analysed. This includes both crack width development and overall pattern forming. The results are verified with linear variable differential transformers (LVDT‘s) and a laser measuring vertical displacements. This procedure is devised to evaluate the stiffness behaviour of the beams as well as the cracking behaviours. In addition, the experimental program includes a series of direct tensile tests with reinforcement bars to determine the stress-strain behaviour of the reinforcement bars themselves...

The use of non-destructive tests for assessing the material status of concrete structures in the Netherlands remains relatively uncommon, despite the growing demand for the preservation of existing structures under the VenR policy of Rijkswaterstaat. Skepticism towards NDTs is reflected in the scarcity of documented case studies in publicly available literature and in the absence of rules and guidelines.

In this research, following an extensive literature review on the current state of assessing the material status of reinforced concrete structures using NDTs, a large-scale non-destructive inspection was carried out on the Sluinerweg viaduct. The research aimed to address the practical challenges associated with these methods. These challenges serve to formulate a practical methodology to facilitate future inspections. Limitations include the use of specific NDTs: GPR, UPE, rebound hammer, UPV, half-cell potential, resistivity, and corrosion current density. Following the inspection, a data analysis was conducted, accompanied by a destructive verification of the methods.

The integration of GPR with UPE technology showed promise for tendon duct inspections. However, a 12 mm borehole used for destructive verification proved to be too small to make accurate judgments. Additionally, the absence of grouting defects made evaluation of the method challenging. GPR provided a more accurate estimation of the cover depth compared to previous measurements conducted on the Sluinerweg viaduct using a standard cover meter. However, it was impossible to measure through the cathodic protection coating. The data's correlation with the provided drawings is promising, especially given that drawings are often unavailable. The key finding regarding the estimation of compressive strength using the rebound hammer and UPV is the strong recommendation to avoid using SonReb models unless they are specifically calibrated for the structure under inspection. No active corrosion sites were found, which posed challenges to evaluating the methods. Resistivity values measured using the Proceq Resipod consistently showed lower readings than those obtained with the Gecor-10 Wenner probe. A laboratory investigation ruled out moisture content as the cause. Fortunately, the differences are less pronounced with corroded reinforcement; however, further investigation is necessary. The previous inspection regimes in the Liggerkoppen project were found to be suboptimal in some aspects but were deemed reasonable considering the complexity of the project.

This research demonstrated the effectiveness of several NDTs in-situ, which should help to build trust in the reliability of these methods for future inspections. Based on the findings of this research, it is strongly recommended to conduct further large-scale inspections to improve the practical methodology, gain further experience and develop improved codes and guidelines. While there is still much to accomplish, Rijkswaterstaat's support for investigations such as the one conducted for the Sluinerweg viaduct demonstrates their commitment to a better future.

Ultra-High Performance Fiber Reinforced Concrete (UHPFRC) is a promising material for different applications such as bridge deck strengthening due to its improved strength and durability properties. Especially the tensile strength and ductility is heavily dependent on the distribution and orientation of the steel fibers within the element. This fiber behaviour can be unpredictable, causing a large scatter in material properties. This scatter is inconvenient for predicting the material properties. The novelty of the material is the main reason that UHPFRC is not included in the Eurocode. Certain countries like Switzerland and France have developed their own UHPFRC norms.

In order to increase the knowledge and understanding of the fiber distribution and orientation, a non-destructive testing method has been developed. Two types of magnetic probes have been developed: the C-shaped ferrite probe and the single ferrite probe. These probes are based on other probes developed at the University of Milan and Porto. The C-shaped ferrite probe is most suitable for measuring the total fiber content and fiber orientation. The single ferrite probe is able to take fiber content measurements closer to the edge making it more efficient for fiber distribution measurements. This can result in a reliable prediction of the peak-tensile strength. The addition of UHPFRC specific design rules and this non-destructive testing method will make UHPFRC and its applications more attractive.

In this research, 27 different UHPFRC plates were cast with the same dimensions of 10x200x200 mm3. These plates were cast horizontally or vertically with either 1%, 2%, 3% or 4% fiber content. Seven plates were vibrated after casting in order to analyse the influence of vibration. Each fiber content resulted in a relatively homogeneous fiber distribution and random fiber orientation. Horizontal casting of UHPFRC plates usually result in a more homogeneous fiber distribution and more random fiber orientation compared to vertically cast plates. The best distribution and orientation was reached when the elements were not vibrated at all. Vibration can result in severe fiber segregation along the element height and vertical orientation of the fibers. These conclusions hold for longer UHPFRC elements where the element height and the element thickness remains constant.

One of the main pitfalls in this research is the small thickness of the plates. The length of the fibers exceeds the plate thickness, which makes casting very difficult. During casting, fibers will get stuck at the top of the mould, which also influences the results. Moreover, it is important to continuously keep mixing the UHPFRC mixture in order to equally divide the fibers over all plates and to use a mixture that is castable yet not too flowable. High workability mixtures are more prone to fiber segregation.

The erosion problem along Playá Union presents significant challenges for future port expansion at Puerto Rawson. This research seeks to address the question of how to achieve a sustainable and durable port expansion, while minimizing environmental impacts, particularly concerning sediment imbalance along the coastline? Using 30 years of wave data, both normal and extreme wave conditions are simulated with SWAN, a numerical based wave model. Conceptual port expansion designs are developed, resulting in a final design with an integrated fully dimensioned breakwater. Based on visual inspections, data, and research, a new cement mixture is proposed for the breakwater armour units. A Life Cycle Assessment evaluates the environmental impact, while the effect on alongshore sediment transport is assessed using the SWAN model outcomes and the CERC formula. Visual inspection of the current breakwaters lead to a 6.3% reduction in material use in the new breakwater through reuse of armour units. Furthermore, the proposed cement mixture integrates porphyry quarry waste as the coarse aggregate, a choice also supported by prior research in sustainability. With the new End-of-Life approaches added, the total shadow costs are reduced by 22%. The hydrodynamical analysis and model result in extreme wave heights up to 3.98 m at the toe of the breakwater. By applying a neural network and a k-means algorithm on the wave data, five regular wave conditions are run in the SWAN model. The alongshore sediment transport is impacted by new breakwater concepts. Relying solely on the breakwater layout to counteract erosion north of the port, however, does not prove to be a viable approach. Based on design criteria and aspirations, the final conceptual design proposes the removal of the existing southern breakwater, while retaining sufficient space for future port expansion. The breakwater, integrated in the final design, is dimensioned based on standard design principles. To conclude, the data and model provide valuable insights into the coastal dynamics around Puerto Rawson. The proposed concrete mixture, along with the End-of-Life solutions, minimize environmental impact and enhance durability of the armour units. The sustainable breakwater design, effectively integrated into Puerto Rawson, accommodates for future port expansions

Cracking in reinforced concrete structures can occur at any stage during their lifetime, and is anticipated for during its design. It is crucial to control crack widths by applying sufficient reinforcement to prevent impairments to the structure’s functionality. Cracks may develop due to external loads applied to the structure or due to imposed deformation. Imposed deformation occurs when movement is restrained, for example due to adjoining structures or internal thermal strain gradients in thick concrete sections. With the increased use of high-strength concrete since the late 20th century, autogenous shrinkage has emerged as a significant source of early-age cracking as well.
In practice, observed crack widths due to a combination of imposed deformation and mechanical loading during the early age of concrete are often smaller than predicted by structural design codes. Thissuggests that less reinforcement could be used in concrete structures, offering potential durability benefits. However, literature lacks sufficient validation of this observation, as well as an understanding of its origin and how it can be incorporated into design practices.

Liang (2024) developed a mini-TSTM specifically for plain mortar and validated its setup using results
from the regular TSTM, which has been extensively documented in the literature. This setup allows for precise control over both deformation and temperature development and is integrated with an Instron loading machine. By restraining the mini-TSTM specimen during its early age, stresses due to autogenous shrinkage and thermal deformation are induced.

The following research question was explored: How do crack widths develop in reinforced concrete
under the combination of imposed deformation and mechanical loading?
The first method used to answer this research question was to compare experimentally observed crack widths due to the combination of imposed deformation and mechanical loading to predictions from five structural design codes and guidelines.
Secondly, the impact of increasing the fraction of imposed deformation relative to mechanical loading on crack width in reinforced concrete was investigated.
Initially, the experimental setup and procedure, including reinforcement, were developed, followed by three experiments conducted at different times after the initial setting time and at various levels of imposed deformation. Using data from the Instron and a DIC analysis, experimental crack widths were obtained and compared to predictions from five structural design codes and guidelines.The optical microscope analysis provided further insights into crack locations.
Model Code 2010 proved to be the most accurate and consistent during the crack formation stage, while Van Breugel’s method was most accurate and consistent during the stabilized cracking stage.
Crack widths due to the combination of loading is generally overestimated by the design codes and guidelines, highlighting the importance of understanding their underlying principles and theories for accurate predictions.
There appears to be a trend indicating that an increase in the fraction of imposed deformation relative to mechanical loading results in a decrease in the final crack width in reinforced concrete. However, the varying weighted maturities across experiments also influence the predicted crack widths, making it difficult to confirm this hypothesis with certainty.

The development of the reinforced mini-TSTM experimental setup opens up new research opportunities. It significantly reduces the required workforce compared to the regular TSTM and, with the addition of the Instron, facilitates mechanical tensile testing of reinforced mortar.

3D printing of concrete is an automated manufacturing technology being developed for the construction industry. The objective is that the technology can make the construction industry more time-, labour- and material-efficient as well as increase the formability of structural designs. 3Dconcrete printing has been in development for over a decade and the technology has recently made its introduction into the built world. That being said, there are still several challenges that call for attention before the technology can be widely implemented. One of the most distinct challenges is the reinforcement of the printed element. Concrete is by nature a brittle material, which is strong in compression but relatively weak in tension. Under loads that cause tensile forces, such as bending in beams, plain concrete can easily crack or even break completely. Traditionally, concrete is therefore reinforced with embedded steel reinforcement bars that prevent the concrete from brittle failure. In the application of 3DCP the implementation of steel rebars is not trivial, and thus alternative reinforcement methods are being developed. Based on the concept of strain hardening cementitious composites (SHCC), one possible solution can be found in the development of 3Dprintable strain hardening cementitious composites (3DP-SHCC). SHCC is characterised by its ductility and its capacity to show strain hardening behaviour under uniaxial tensile loading. The combination of these two relatively new innovations imposes strict and occasionally contradicting requirements on the fresh and hardened mechanical properties. Where the 3DCP aspect of the material imposes requirements on the fresh mechanical properties, such as pumpability, extrudability and buildability, the strain hardening aspect requires very balanced and fragile criteria on the (micro)mechanical properties in the hardened state.

This PhD project ventures to incorporate SHCC into the 3-dimensional printing technology, with the underlying objective to systematically develop a printable strain - hardening cementitious composite for structural purposes.
• Optimisation of the particle size distribution formed the basis for developing a new 3DP-SHCC material. Grain size distribution analysis based on the "modified Andreasen and Andersen" model were performed on several dry-mix compositions to ensure the buildability and stability of the 3DP-SHCC in its fresh state. After this, four-point bending tests were carried out to verify the ductility in the hardened state. Two dry mixes were selected and further optimised with the addition of a viscosity modifier agent (VMA) and a super plasticiser (SP). Print speed trials and buildability tests were conducted to assess the printability of the final mix designs, followed by experimental testing of both the fresh and curedmechanical properties.
• To enable large-scale structural applications of 3DP-SHCC, various pumping strategies were evaluated, revealing bottlenecks such as the formation of fibre agglomxi xii SUMMARY erates and blockages. Individual components of the pumping system were tested and adjusted to achieve constant and adequate material flow as well as material stability throughout the printing process.
• The effect of the printing process on hardened mechanical properties underwent evaluation through two experimental studies. Firstly, an examination of the consistency of hardened mechanical properties was conducted across three nominally identical printing sessions. The second study focused on the different phases of one single printing session. It determined the influence of subsequent printing phases (mixing, pumping, extruding, and printing) on the hardened mechanical properties of the printed 3DP-SHCC elements.
• The fresh and hardened mechanical properties of a 3DP-SHCC matrixwith various fibre types were evaluated in an experimental study. High variation in workability, ductility and strain hardening capacity was encountered.
• Finally, given the importance of the fresh mechanical properties of 3DP-SHCC, research was conducted on several fresh mechanical tests. The tests were evaluated for their applicability to 3DP-SHCC based on five criteria: Reliability, precision, un-ambiguity, reproducibility and feasibility.

The study successfully developed 3Dprintable SHCCs that meet the requirements on printability and strain hardening to the achieve ductility and strain hardening capacity of printed elements.

Furthermore, the study helps to understand the interaction between the printing system and the 3DP-SHCC. It highlights the implications the material has on the pumping system and how the printing process influences the hardened mechanical properties. It discusses the key parameters of fibre types and how these influence the fresh and hardened mechanical properties, and last but not least, it gives insight into fresh mechanical testing protocols for the high-yield stress 3DP-SHCCs.

All of these give a solid base for researchers to design fibre-reinforced printable composites, with required printability and strain hardening properties. In particular, it contributes to the design and tailoring strategies for high-performance strain hardening composites.

Repeated crystallisation of salts in the pores of building materials is a common cause of damage in buildings. Sodium chloride (NaCl) is one of the most common salts, responsible for weathering in the built environment. Mortars, especially when used as plasters and renders on the surface of walls, experience fast degradation as they are exposed to conditions perfectly conducive to salt weathering. As a consequence, their service life is often compromised, requiring frequent replacements. Costs associated with replacement interventions have a high economic and a social impact. Over the last two decades, the use of crystallisation inhibitors as an additive to prevent/mitigate salt crystallisation damage in building materials has shown promising results. Sodium ferrocyanide (NaFeCN), a crystallisation inhibitor of NaCl is particularly effective in preventing damage by inhibiting/delaying NaCl nucleation and altering NaCl’s crystal habit. When mixed-in air lime-based mortars, NaFeCN has been shown to considerably improve the salt weathering resistance....

With growing concern for global warming, the electricity industry is actively promoting the transition from coal to renewable energy sources. Due to the carbon neutrality of wood biomass energy, it has become one of the most popular options of renewable energy sources. However, the by-products resulting from biomass combustion, particularly wood biomass fly ash (WBFA), have not received sufficient attention. Direct disposal of WBFA poses environmental threats and causes pollution. From the perspective of the construction industry, the energy transition has led to a scarcity of coal fly ash (CFA) that is intensively used as supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) in construction industry. With the increasing demand for raw materials in construction industry, it is of great interest to explore whether WBFA can be integrated as a new material in construction industry. This motivates the initiative of this research, driven by significant industry demand.

This thesis aims to enlarge the utilization efficiency of WBFA by recirculating WBFA as a valuable mineral to develop sustainable low-carbon cementitious materials. Prior to the experiment, a literature review on the properties of WBFA and current WBFA utilization methodologies in cementitious materials are summarized. An application-oriented WBFA classification was proposed, providing a guideline for the utilization of WBFA in preparing cementitious materials.

For the experimental research, three types of WBFA were initially characterized and screened based on their physicochemical properties, i.e., the content of unfavoured metallic aluminum and reactive components. One type of WBFA with representative properties was selected as the most suitable candidate for further investigation. To remove the metallic aluminum in WBFA, a two-step pretreatment method is proposed. The feasibility of WBFA for binder formulation was then evaluated through dissolution tests.

Based on the characteristics of WBFA, two types of binders were proposed. In chapter 4, considering the high alkalinity of WBFA, WBFA was used to enhance the reaction of aluminosilicates. An innovative clinker-free binary binder with WBFA and blast furnace slag (BFS) was developed. The effects of different WBFA to BFS ratios on reaction kinetics, hydration products, and microstructure evolution were studied. Following this, WBFA was further used as a mineral additive for BFS replacement in BFS blended cement. The effects of WBFA on both BFS and cement reactions were comprehensively studied using different characterization techniques. These two chapters together provide new solutions for the valorization of WBFA in novel binder formulations.

The carbonation of WBFA-containing binders investigated in chapter 4 and 5 was studied in chapter 6. The carbonation kinetics of pastes were calculated based on the carbonation depth development. It was found that in WBFA-BFS binary pastes, mixture with 50% of WBFA and 50% of BFS showed the best carbonation resistance, although the carbonation coefficient was much larger than cement pastes. When WBFA was introduced in BFS blended cement, it was observed that there was a decreased carbonation resistance in pastes with more WBFA. By analysing the microstructure evolution, it was concluded that pore connectivity played the key role in governing the carbonation process of pastes. Further grinding of WBFA to reduce its porous structure was recommended to reduce the pore connectivity and improve the carbonation resistance of pastes with WBFA.
The environmental impact evaluation is of great significance for waste utilization in the construction industry, as it can, to a certain extent, help quantify the sustainability of specific products. In chapter 7, bio-ash bricks and bio-ash composite cement were developed based on the mixtures studied in Chapters 4 and 5, respectively. A cradle-to-gate life cycle analysis (LCA) was conducted to evaluate the contribution of integrating WBFA for the production of these construction products. Possible improvements regarding further reducing the environmental impact of these products are discussed.

In summary, this thesis offers novel options for the utilization of WBFA in the construction sector as a binder component. Binary paste containing up to 70% WBFA demonstrates satisfactory mechanical properties for low-strength applications. In BFS-blended cement, substituting up to 30% of BFS with WBFA enhances early compressive strength, only a 7.67% reduction in compressive strength after 90 days. These findings indicate high utilization efficiency for WBFA. The investigations in the reaction kinetics and microstructure evolution of pastes with different WBFA to BFS ratios in the binders yield valuable insights into the function of WBFA in binder reaction. This knowledge can serve as a valuable reference for engineering practitioners seeking to customize the properties of these binders. The development of building products such as bio-ash bricks and bio-ash cement exemplifies the conversion of WBFA into construction materials. This emphasizes the notable ecological advantages of WBFA as a resource for the construction sector, highlighting the academic and industrial interests in utilizing WBFA for the development of sustainable low-carbon cementitious materials.

Building materials generally perform poorly in a high temperature environment. Residential fires and fires in road tunnels are common occurrences. Furthermore, some factories have no option besides exposing their infrastructure to very high temperatures due to the nature of their operation logistics. Therefore, there is a clear need for developing structural materials that can withstand high temperatures ensuring safety during such events. The present thesis deals with thermal shock damage in construction materials. Specifically, the first half of the thesis focuses on the development of an structural material that would fare well on severe cyclic thermal shock conditions found in a steel factory. The second half aims to improve the capacity of engineers and scientists to predict whether a concrete of a given mixture would suffer from spalling under certain heating conditions. Initially, a review of the main effects and chemical changes caused by high temperature was performed on the conventional building materials, followed by some novel materials being currently explored by the civil engineering scientific community. This aided in the pre-selection of material to be tested at later stages. Further, existing theories concerning high temperature spalling, the causes and the main methods of mitigation were reviewed.

Over the last 15 years or so, research has revealed the great self-healing prospects possessed by asphaltic mixtures. Researchers have proposed novel methods to harness this capability, aiming to prolong the service life of asphalt pavement, particularly in porous asphalt. To date, the most promising of the healing methods is the combined capsule-induction system. This thesis aims to ascertain whether such a system would show positive results in stone mastic asphalt (SMA). Following that, an optimisation of the composition of self-healing SMA was proposed by assessing the mechanical and healing properties via laboratory testing. Finally, an evaluation of sustainability from an environmental perspective was done using Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) methodology.

Results of the healing assessment revealed that each combined healing system was able to recover between 58-63\% of its original fracture strength after 8 healing cycles, while the reference mix (without healing) was only able to regain 10\% fracture strength before failure after 2 cycles.

Inclusion of the combined healing system slightly reduced the strength, stiffness and water sensitivity of the SMA mixture compared to the reference. However, improved rutting resistance was observed in each self-healing case. Within the self-healing mixtures, increasing capsule content reduced asphalt density, stiffness and strength and resulted in an increase in asphalt void content.

The LCA results show that the self-healing system had environmental benefits in some facets such as a 14\% reduction in fossil fuel resource depletion and a 21\% reduction in land use. However, the present total known environmental costs of other impacts are approximately 15\% lower in the reference system based on a cradle to gate, and use phase analysis. Almost half of this total cost was attributed to maintenance activities. It was concluded that a 32\% increase in maintenance efficiency would ensure environmental viability of a self-healing mixture over a reference mixture within the constraints of the analysis conducted.

Under service conditions and because of environmental and climate changes, the concrete is at risk due to crack-induced durability problems. The consequences can be even more pronounced when concrete is exposed to specifically aggressive environmental conditions. This has been portrayed by rapid deterioration of relatively young concrete structures such as the ones no older than fifteen years, which obviously are much shorter than their estimated service life. As such, crack-closing ability is needed in these concrete constructions to prolong their service life.
Numerous studies have been reporting on the autogenous healing of cracks in cement-based materials. However, an active or rapid micro-crack healing is not always the case in the most critical parts of exposed structures. In this thesis, a new formulation of cement-based materials, by integrating selected bacteria and suitable organic mineral precursor compounds, was used to investigate its potential for enabling multiple crack healing events on load-induced cracked and pre-cracked concrete samples. For this purpose, chloride ingress in concrete subjected to compressive loading was investigated through laboratory experiments. Furthermore, investigation was also carried out on cracked mortar under chloride and carbon dioxide environments for healing-potential evaluation....

For some decades now, additive manufacturing has been a revolutionary technology which generates enormous interest in both industrial and academic applications. 3D concrete printing (3DCP), an automated construction method, is able to manufacture the computer-designed model through material deposition. This innovative technique can considerably accelerate the construction process, and make it economically and technically feasible to implement complex structural elements in practice. Although this technique shows a promising future, full adoption in construction sector is still far from possible due to the absence of fundamental knowledge about printable material and structural analysis during or after printing process....

Adding extra functionality to cementitious materials will enhance the capabilities of understanding the use of structures where they are used and at the same time increase its life span. The construction industry is one of the most important economic sectors in many countries. Therefore, efforts to improve its productivity can result in significant developments in the economy of a region. Higher productivity can be achieved for instance by means of process automation, by adding value to the product generated with an activity or via the extension of the use of a given asset.....

When concrete is subjected to imposed deformations, stresses may develop. If at any point in time this stress exceeds the tensile strength of the material, the concrete will crack. Early-age cracking of concrete structures may lead to problems with durability, serviceability and aesthetics. During hardening of concrete the material properties are still in development. Therefore, to be able to predict the crack width, understanding of the stress- and strength development is required. In addition, concrete is a visco-elastic material which means that stresses are affected by phenomena such as creep or relaxation. If the design codes predict the crack width in concrete structures under imposed deformations accurately remain subject of debate. The CROW report published in 2021 [9] provided the starting point for this research. The aim of this study was to gain more insight on the background of the design codes, and to explain the fundamentals of the crack width prediction in case of imposed deformations. For this purpose, the following research question was formulated:
”What is the applicability of the design codes regarding the crack width prediction of reinforced concrete structures under imposed deformations?” From the literature study it became clear that the main difference between the design codes was related to which boundary conditions and cracking theory were applied. The majority of the design codes applied the well known tension bar model theory where both ends are fully restrained. In addition, there were also codes using the continuous base restraining theory in which the tensile member is continuously restrained along one edge. This made a huge difference in the prediction of the crack width. From the finite element analysis which was performed, it turned out that there is a difference between the steel stress development of imposed loading and imposed deformations. In addition, in case of imposed loading less cracks were developed than under imposed deformations. However, from this specific numerical analysis it turned out that the maximum crack spacing and crack width is smaller in
the imposed loading model in comparison to the imposed deformation model. The only explanation for this is that in case of imposed loading the cracks are more evenly distributed. A case study was used to simulate the hardening process of concrete in combination with autogenous shrinkage as imposed deformation and compared with a finite element analysis. The goal was to determine a set of model properties that are useful for future engineers. The accuracy of the input parameters was verified with the experimental work carried out by M. Sule. Overall, when performing a non-linear finite element analysis a lot of knowledge was required. It turned out that specific choices such as the constitutive model type, the kinematic and equilibrium condition have a major impact on the outcome. Using the modified Bar model of Lokhorst in combination with this numerical approach resulted in good agreement with the experimental findings.

The parameter study showed that regarding the tension bar models, the bar diameter has the largest influence on the crack width prediction. While with respect to the continuous models there was no onesided answer to the question which parameter had the largest influence on the crack width prediction. In one of the design codes based on the continuous model theory named CIRIA [8] the degree of restraint clearly stands out as the most important parameter. Whereas in the another design code based on this theory, namely the ICE [4], all parameters that were investigated in this thesis have limited effect on the crack width prediction. The design codes considered in this master thesis do not yet fully represent the crack width due to the hardening of concrete or due to autogenous shrinkage. The design codes are applicable for the
crack width prediction of reinforced concrete structures under imposed deformations if conservative assumptions such as a weak bond between concrete and steel reinforcement are taken into account. It is clear that the problem treated in this report has more complexity than what one initially may think.
Opinions on how to determine the crack width of reinforced concrete tensile members under imposed deformations differ. The difference is related to the type of restraint and the cracking theory which are suggested in most used analytical design models. This report contributes to a better understanding of
the crack width development under imposed deformations through non-linear finite element analyses and verification with experiments. The results from this master thesis suggest that an approach to a more consistent crack width prediction under imposed deformations should investigate how bond in the interface between concrete and steel influences cracking. This has lacked attention in the current formulas in the design codes.

Since 2006, the Delft University of Technology has been working on the development of bacterial self-healing concrete (BSHC). The self-healing ability of this concrete is based on a biological mechanism, in which mineral producing bacteria are added to repair cracks autonomously. This not only improves the durability of concrete structures, but could also reduce the need for crack-limiting reinforcement. So far, bacterial self-healing technology has been used in variety of applications, especially watertight structures, but always only as an additional safety measure. Hence, the full crack-sealing capacity, related to the reinforcement reduction potential, could not be proven. This will have to be resolved in a dedicated full-scale demonstrator project. For this demonstrator project, a rectangular water reservoir has to be designed, which will essentially serve as a test case for the newly developed bacterial self-healing technology. This thesis aims to devise the concrete mixture and reinforcement layout for the side walls of this reservoir in such a way that imposed deformations induce a given degree of cracking at an early-age, which allows to demonstrate the crack-sealing capacity and reinforcement reduction potential of BSHC. The design of a concrete mixture intended for the side walls of the reservoir led to four different mixtures, all of which have a cement content of 418 kg/m³ (26% of CEM I 52.5 R and 74% CEM III/B 42.5 N), but vary in the addition of filler in the form of limestone powder and healing agent; a mixture of bacteria and calcium lactate encapsulated in PLA strings. The mixtures with healing agent, which represent BSHC, are meant for side wall A, whereas the mixtures without healing agent representing ordinary concrete can be used for side wall B, so it can serve as a reference. To investigate the effect of these additions, as well as to verify the designs and quantify the relevant physical and mechanical properties of the concrete mixtures, several tests were conducted. These revealed that the mixtures with filler exhibit a higher consistency, improved cohesiveness and more prosperous strength development compared to the mixtures without filler. Both the fresh properties and strength development were not affected by the addition of healing agent. Furthermore, it was found that the addition of filler causes autogenous shrinkage to increase by about 15%, whereas the addition of healing agent causes autogenous shrinkage to decrease by about 20%. From the cracking calculations it is concluded that it is very likely that the early-age cracking of the side walls of the reservoir occurs as a consequence of imposed deformations. Cement hydration causes a large temperature rise, resulting in significant thermal shrinkage due to the subsequent temperature drop. The imposed deformations are restrained by the floor of the reservoir, as well as the foundation material underneath. This results in a maximum probability of cracking of 65% and 93% according to two different methods. In order to demonstrate the true crack-sealing capacity of BSHC, if is preferred to obtain various crack widths along the length of the side walls and the reinforcement layout must be configured to allow this to happen. Therefore, several methods that deal with the prediction of crack widths are implemented in this case. Based on the average of all prediction methods it is found that the following crack widths occur given the longitudinal reinforcement distribution in brackets: 0.09 (Ø20-100), 0.20 (Ø20-160), 0.31 (Ø20-210) and 0.43 mm (Ø20-250). However, it was also discovered that the mutual differences between the prediction methods are very large, in particular at lower reinforcement ratios. But then again, a reinforcement layout divided into multiple sections, consisting of the aforementioned longitudinal reinforcement distributions, offers the best chance of demonstrating self-healing ability.