This thesis examines how a multi-actor system diagram can contribute to strengthening cardiovascular disease (CVD) prevention for women in the Netherlands. The analysis shows that sex-specific risk factors are insufficiently addressed and that responsibility for prevention is fragmented across multiple actors.

Four promising interventions are identified: sex-specific GP training, targeted smoking-cessation outreach, broader eligibility for the Combined Lifestyle Intervention (GLI), and safer physical-activity infrastructure. The system diagrams also reveal feedback loops, coordination failures, and gaps between policy intentions and practical outcomes.

The thesis proposes five recommendations to strengthen accountability for women-specific CVD prevention within existing responsibilities. Overall, the multi-actor system diagram is valuable for identifying systemic problems and leverage points, although it remains a simplified representation of a complex prevention system. ... Read more

Dutch public service organisations face a structural tension between the need to automate routine decisions to absorb a tightening labour market and the requirement to keep those decisions transparent and contestable, as the toeslagenaffaire made plain. Rules as Code (rac), the practice of representing legislation in machine-readable form alongside the natural-language text, is one response to this tension. Several Dutch initiatives, including Alef/Regelspraak at the Belastingdienst, RegelRecht at the Ministry of the Interior, and the Digitaal Stelsel Omgevingswet, have shown that rac is technically feasible, but none has scaled beyond protected pilots into structural institutional embedding. This research asks what a scaling framework should look like to support Dutch public service organisations in moving rac initiatives from isolated experimentation to structural institutional embedding.

The study combines three theoretical lenses: Moore’s public value theory provides the substantive, authorising, and operational dimensions of scaling; Malone and Crowston’s coordination theory identifies the dependency types that make inter-organisational rac persistently difficult; and Van Hout’s public sector scaling framework provides the temporal logic linking validated factors to a phase-structured trajectory. The empirical work proceeds in two phases. Phase 1 is a multiple case study of the three most institutionally advanced Dutch rac implementations combined with eight semi-structured expert interviews with hybrid legal-technical, technical, governance, and external advisory professionals embedded in those cases. Phase 2 is a two-round Delphi study with twelve domain experts that first validates a set of nineteen candidate scaling factors and then positions the validated factors across a three-phase scaling trajectory.

The output is the rac Scaling Process Model: an empirically validated, phase-structured account that positions fourteen scaling factors across three phases (Emergence, Institutionalisation, Stabilisation) and identifies two cross-phase conditions. Four factors anchor the phase structure through single-phase majority: cultural-legal anxiety in Emergence, shared encoding conventions and the legal status of encoded rules in Institutionalisation, and technical interoperability in Stabilisation. Hybrid legaltechnical expertise, cross-domain decision authority, and the remaining validated factors occupy supporting tiers around these anchors. Durable political mandate and citizen trust and contestability operate as cross-phase enabling conditions that must be maintained throughout the trajectory rather than addressed at any single moment. The model is further conditioned by three implementation configurations, self-executing (Belastingdienst), capability-building (RegelRecht), and distributed facilitation (the dso), which encounter the same factor set through structurally different governance trajectories.

The research contributes three theoretical extensions to the literature on rac and digital government scaling. First, the dispersed-actor problem: Moore’s strategic triangle and Malone and Crowston’s coordination theory both presuppose a strategic actor with sufficient cross-vertex authority, a precondition the Dutch interbestuurlijk context does not satisfy. Second, the non-aanvalsverdrag as a fifth coordination failure mode: actors rationally choose not to integrate encoded interpretations because surfacing the underlying disagreements is more costly than indefinite parallel operation, a failure mode that coordination theory’s mechanism-design vocabulary does not anticipate. Third, a scaling-deep timescale and moving-target critique of Van Hout, whose social innovation framework underestimates the capability-building time that hybrid legal-technical expertise requires and the methodological instability that rac tooling introduces during the scaling attempt. Practically, the framework is offered as a phase-structured diagnostic artefact for organisations navigating the transition from pilot to institutional embedding, intended to guide a structured conversation across the actors involved rather than prescribe an outcome. Its grounding in the Dutch institutional context bounds its transferability to other jurisdictions, identified as a target for future research. ... Read more

This thesis combines a substance-based Material Flow Analysis (MFA) of carbon in the EU economy with a systematic mapping of EU carbon-related policies to assess how well policies align with physical carbon flows. The analysis shows that EU carbon governance is heavily concentrated at the emissions stage, where major fossil and mineral emission flows are covered by multiple regulations, while upstream stages, trade, and material stocks receive far less attention. In particular, fossil fuel imports represent the largest carbon inflow but are not subject to carbon-specific regulatory criteria. The study concludes that EU carbon policies are structurally biased toward downstream emissions rather than carbon flows across the full life cycle, and recommends extending carbon intensity criteria to fossil fuel imports to improve policy coherence and completeness. ... Read more

Network effects, economies of scale, switching costs, data accumulation, and restricted interoperability can make digital markets organise around a small number of infrastructures rather than around continuous competition between equivalent providers (Eeckhout, 2021; Srnicek, 2017). When this happens, the policy problem is not only that one provider may hold market power. The provider can also define the conditions under which other actors reach users, exchange information, execute transactions, access evidence, or contest errors. Digital market power therefore becomes a governance problem inside a digital infrastructure system. Current digital market regulation already starts from the judgement that durable market power should not be used to exclude competitors, impose unfair conditions, preference own services, or reduce contestability (European Commission, 2022; Nadler, 2022). This thesis addresses this problem by proposing a framework that links architectural control, infrastructure dependence, counterbalancing mechanisms, and power concentration.

The thesis proposes a Digital Infrastructure Governance Framework for this purpose. The framework identifies where power concentration is produced, which actors are affected by it, and where intervention is possible. It combines two lenses. The normative governance lens assesses whether legislative, executive, and judicial governance functions become concentrated in one actor. The architectural governance lens explains how that concentration is produced through architectural permissions, CentralDI dependence, and counterbalancing mechanisms. Together, these lenses connect the assessment of power concentration to the arrangements that produce it.

To structure the analysis, the framework adopts four analytical levels. The digital infrastructure sector (DISector) contains software based systems that become infrastructural because actors depend on proprietary standards, interfaces, protocols, or access permissions. A digital infrastructure market (DIMarket) is organised around a recurring informational need, such as storing, processing, validating, transmitting, or coordinating information. The digital infrastructure arena (DIArena) is the social and technical arena organised around one central digital infrastructure and the actors that provide, use, depend on, or are affected by it. The central digital infrastructure (CentralDI) is the specific infrastructure around which dependence and control relations are assessed.

The normative governance lens operationalises power concentration as Triadic Power Concentration (TPC). Legislative capacity concerns the ability to define rules, access conditions, data requirements, interface standards, or participation conditions. Executive capacity concerns the ability to implement, operate, enforce, rank, validate, or restrict actions through the infrastructure. Judicial capacity concerns the ability to interpret rules, resolve disputes, correct errors, determine exceptions, or decide whether affected actors can appeal. TPC increases when these capacities are concentrated in one actor.

The architectural governance lens explains how this concentration becomes actionable. Architectural permissions specify which actor can perform which operation on which part of the CentralDI. These permissions matter because code and architecture structure behaviour by making some actions possible, others impossible, and others more costly (Lessig, 2000). However, architectural permissions do not mechanically determine power concentration. They specify what a permission holder can do. CentralDI dependence determines how much those actions matter to other actors. Counterbalancing mechanisms determine whether the resulting leverage can be constrained.

The core mechanism is a proportionality relation. Greater unilateral architectural control combined with stronger CentralDI dependence creates a greater need for counterbalancing mechanisms. Dependence is stronger when actors rely on the CentralDI for revenue, visibility, shared state, process execution, identity, reputation, evidence, or partner coordination. Counterbalancing mechanisms can be institutional, competitive, technical, or collective. When these mechanisms are too weak for the degree of control and dependence present, architectural control becomes Emergent Sociotechnical Leverage (ESL): actionable leverage from one actor over another that emerges from the combined social and technical configuration.

Blockchain governance is specified within this framework as a sub-practice of digital infrastructure governance. It is the deliberate use of blockchain architecture to allocate, share, or constrain architectural permissions. Blockchain can distribute validation, execution, auditability, record keeping, access control, and state control across multiple actors. This can reduce one actor’s unilateral control over the CentralDI. The thesis does not treat technical decentralisation as equivalent to power distribution, because effective control can reconcentrate through development authority, token ownership, validator concentration, interface control, infrastructure hosting, voting design, informal coordination, or off chain decision making (De Filippi & Lavayssière, 2020; De Filippi, 2019).

The empirical analysis uses an exploratory multiple case study. It applies the framework to two DIMarkets and three DIArenas. The Donation Based Music Technology Market (DBM-TM) is analysed through Patreon and MusicDAO. The Supply Chain Information Exchange Technology Market (SCIE-TM) is analysed through Vinturas. Patreon represents a centralised platform configuration in which one provider controls recurring patronage infrastructure. Vinturas represents a business to business coordination configuration in which architectural control is partly concentrated, while organisational users and negotiated implementation provide counterbalancing capacity. MusicDAO represents a blockchain based configuration in which formal openness reduces unilateral provider control, while effective governance can reconcentrate through informal coordination, technical expertise, development authority, or codebase control.

The case analysis shows that power concentration cannot be inferred from whether a system is centralised or decentralised. Patreon shows how broad provider permissions become governance power when creators depend on the platform for recurring revenue, audience coordination, visibility, and enforcement. Vinturas shows that concentrated architectural permissions do not necessarily create unbalanced leverage when organisational strength, negotiated implementation, and credible alternatives counterbalance the permission holder. MusicDAO shows that openness can reduce unilateral provider control while also weakening the institutional and collective mechanisms that normally attach accountability to an identifiable actor.

The policy relevance follows from this diagnostic logic. Organisations should treat adoption of a CentralDI as a dependency decision. Before dependence becomes difficult to reverse, they should assess which architectural permissions the provider controls, how workflows, data, revenue, reputation, or partner relations may become embedded, and which counterbalances are available. Regulators and policymakers should assess which governance functions are concentrated, which architectural permissions produce that concentration, which actors depend on the controlled function, and whether intervention should redistribute architectural permissions, lower dependence, or strengthen counterbalancing mechanisms.
... Read more

Inflation is one of the key concepts in economics. Central banks have the explicit task to keep inflation stable and low. Over the last thirty years, they have mostly succeeded. This changed with the covid pandemic. After the pandemic, inflation shot up and central banks failed to get inflation under control. Inflation in the US peaked at 9%. Most central banks waited long to increase the interest rates, as they expected inflation to come down on its own. The Federal Reserve (FED) only started to raise interest rates more than a year after inflation exceeded its target rate of 2%.

The FED reacted so late because they put faith in a relatively new tool used by central banks all over the (Western) world, forward guidance. This tool is a statement central banks publish about their future monetary policy, which implies future inflation rates. If economic actors view their central bank as credible, they will trust this statement and use it to update their own inflation expectations. Inflation expectations are seen as a strong component of inflation dynamics in the orthodox economic theory. In some theories they are seen to have a stronger hold on inflation than the interest rate.

Central banks had put a lot of faith in forward guidance. They were sure people's inflation expectations would stay anchored (or stable). This would theoretically result in inflation coming down quickly, without the need to raise interest rates and slowing the economy down. However, inflation rates did not come down quickly and central banks still had to raise rates. It is important to understand why forward guidance was seen as so important and if there are other ways of keeping inflation expectations anchored.

Central banks use models to predict the future development of the economy. They use them to determine and test policies. Based on these models, they decide what action to take. These models are a great way to gain a deeper understanding of the world view of central bankers and forward guidance. A key model that has paved the way for other similar models is the FRB/US model of the FED. This is a semi-structured full scale economic model of the US economy. Other central banks have explicitly taken this model as inspiration for their own models. Therefore, the FRB/US model is a good case study to gain a deeper understanding of inflation dynamics and forward guidance.

We have taken a deep look at the inflation dynamics of the FRB/US model. We have mapped out the dynamics with a combination of causal loop diagrams and Sobol Indices. Our research has shown that inflation expectations, specifically the long-term inflation expectations are critical. They dominate the whole dynamics. In realistic situations, there is very little price inflation possible if the long-term inflation expectations stay anchored. Furthermore, the long-term inflation expectations go towards 2%, the target rate of the FED, relatively quickly. This makes it almost impossible for persistent inflation to show up in the model.

This has strong implications for monetary policy. Long-term inflation expectations can not be influenced by setting interest rates. Changing the interest rate has been shown to have very little effect on the wider inflation dynamics in the FRB/US model. Forward guidance is not explicitly modelled. The only tool the central bank can use to influence long-term inflation expectations is the target inflation rate. This can possibly be seen as a very limited, but implicit modelling of forward guidance. However, there is no space in the FRB/US model for the credibility of the central bank. This is critical for forward guidance.

The fact that the interest rates have little effect on the price inflation does not mean that the FED can just lower rates to 0. The little effect it does have does bring inflation up in the long-run. Furthermore, in the long run, the effectiveness of the federal funds rate rises as the FED has the ability to iterate its policy rate on the current economic situation. We also have not researched the effect of the federal funds rate on other key economic variables outside of inflation.

The modelling of the long-term inflation expectations is very limited. This is concerning, given its dominance over the inflation dynamics. Its limited modelling gives very little tools to the central bank. Its main tool, the ability to set interest rates, is practically ineffective when it comes to lowering price inflation.

In its current form, inflation management is solely a task of the central bank. They impose their view and policy on the economy. In our research, we have looked into a different possible approach. One where both the goal and the burden can be shared between the main actors in the economy: a Social Pact. We have investigated a scenario where the long-term inflation expectations have been high for a longer period of time. Our research has shown that a social pact, where the government, unions and employer organizations come together to share the load, can be beneficial to inflation levels, as well as the unemployment rate and wider economic performance. These positive effects are present in the short-medium term. In the long-run, all effects go away, as the model is explicitly built to reach a pre-defined steady state in the long-run. In this scenario, the responsibility for inflation management is shared between the government, unions and employer organizations. The central bank still holds its elevated position to act upon the actions of the other actors.

We have also investigated the option of the central bank joining the pact. This would bring the central bank down to the same position as the other actors. The scenario we have investigated has the central bank changing its policy rule. Our research has shown that this has limited, but positive effects, as the economic recovery from the shock is a few years faster. The policy rule change is still only a limited shift from our current economic situation. More far-reaching options that to put the central bank on more equal footing as the other actors are promising routes for future research. However, bringing the central bank down from its elevated position undermines its independence. This is a policy choice that can be made but this has to be done with the utmost care, especially given the current political climate.

Our research has introduced the technique of applying Sobol Indices to the causal links in causal loop diagrams. Although there are limitations to this method, as Sobol Indices are developed to be used with independent input variables, we have shown that these can be mitigated.

Our research implies that the central bank has a very small role when it comes to inflation dynamics. This could be true and would mean that policy makers, as well as the wider public have to update their views on the role of the central bank in our economy. However, it is too early to jump to such conclusions. More research is required to find out whether this implication is only a property of the FRB/US model, or of New-Keynesian (semi-structured) models or of wider orthodox macro-economic theory. Another implication could be that the dominance and the specific modeling of the long-term inflation expectations explain the consistent underestimation of the risk of persisting inflation, following the inflationary spike after the covid pandemic. This also requires more research, both into the FRB/US model as into other macro-economic models.

Our research into Social Pacts has shown potential for this tool. We have shown that they have potential in re-anchoring long-term inflation expectations. Social Pacts could turn out to be a very useful tool for policy makers, especially if it turns out that central banks have a more limited impact on inflation dynamics than currently presumed.

Our research does have some notable limitations. The most important one relates to the calculation of the Sobol Indices. These have been calculated for a specific subset of conditions. These are plausible conditions. However, more research and simulations are required to find out if the Sobol Indices show similar results under different conditions.

Future research could explore the role of the (long-term) inflation expectations in more models used by central banks and find out if our conclusions hold for those models too. Furthermore, more research is required to find out if central banks indeed hold less control over the inflation dynamics than presumed, as the modelling world does not always line up with the real world. ... Read more

In recent years, Surroundings Engagement Management (SEM) has become a critical component for ensuring smooth project execution. Driven by increasing societal awareness, declining trust in government institutions, and policy reforms such as the Dutch Environment and Planning Act (Omgevingswet). Yet, despite its expanding relevance, SEM is not easily defined. The role is broad in scope, strongly shaped by organisational and project contexts, and interpreted in multiple ways across practice. As a result, there is no single, uncontested understanding of what constitutes the work and responsibilities of an SEM professional.... ... Read more

There are increasing concerns regarding an insidious consequence of social media: the erosion of user autonomy. The research aims to explore unreflective habit formation – an expression of loss of user autonomy - in the context of TikTok usage in Vietnam and to apply STAMP model to conceptualize the issue and the STPA method to provide actionable recommendations to the Vietnam Government. Being explorative, the research adopts desk research and qualitative methods. By integrating different concepts of autonomy in philosophy and HCI, the research identifies five key dimensions of autonomy, namely decision, execution, self-congruence, independence and system hostility. As social media exploits neurological reward cycles to reinforce user habits, user autonomy is infringed under the decision, execution and system hostility dimensions. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 12 Vietnamese female university students in Hue during April 2025, revealing that their impulsive TikTok habitual use is unreflective. There are three main losses from this impulsive habit: time, focus capacity and identity rigidification. The responsibility for regulating social media platforms lies with the Government. They should adopt a combined strategy that integrates strict regulation of social media with comprehensive public education. These measures must be informed by up-to-date scientific research on user behavior and platform design. Regulations should not target TikTok in isolation, as the platform’s features are widely replicated across the industry. While applying STAMP model and STPA method to social media reveals both challenges and benefits, this approach is appropriate as it offers actionable insights that support targeted and comprehensive policy strategies. ... Read more

Universal Health Coverage (UHC) aims to ensure that all individuals have access to essential healthcare services without facing financial hardship. Achieving UHC requires not only the availability of healthcare services but also the delivery of high-quality care, supported by essential technologies such as medical devices. Medical devices enhance healthcare delivery by enabling timely and accurate medical interventions, yet ensuring that these devices contribute to healthcare outcomes requires more than making them available. In many low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), the functionality and integration of medical devices into healthcare delivery remain a persistent challenge. Devices that are not properly maintained, adapted to local contexts, or aligned with clinical needs often end up unused or broken. Therefore, procurement plays a crucial role in ensuring that medical devices are appropriately selected, acquired, and maintained to meet healthcare needs and remain functional over time.

This research explores how government-led procurement can be structured to support the sustained adoption of high-cost medical devices in LMICs, focusing on Malawi as a case study. A qualitative research design was adopted, using semi-structured interviews with key informants directly involved in the public procurement of medical devices in Malawi. These interviews provided insights into procurement practices, decision-making structures, and broader institutional dynamics. To guide the analysis, this research applies the Adaptability, Scalability, and Sustainability (ASaS) model, a decision-oriented framework designed to assess whether health interventions can be adapted, scaled, and sustained over time. The ASaS model is used as an evaluative tool to assess how well Malawi’s procurement practices align with key determinants of sustained adoption and to identify opportunities for improvement.

The findings show that public procurement of high-cost medical devices in Malawi is organised through a multi-layered system operating across national, institutional, and operational levels. Procurement processes are centrally governed to ensure regulatory oversight and financial accountability, with institutions such as the Internal Procurement and Disposal Committee (IPDC), the Public Procurement and Disposal of Assets Authority (PPDA), and the Ministry of Justice overseeing compliance with national priorities under the PPDA Act of 2017. These formal structures define clear steps for procurement, including needs assessments, technical specifications, supplier selection, tendering, contract negotiation, and quality assurance to ensure procured devices meet required standards. However, while procurement structures define formal decision-making processes, procurement practices encompass the broader systemic and institutional conditions that shape how these processes function in practice and influence procurement outcomes.

Procurement practices in Malawi face challenges that affect the sustained adoption of high-cost medical devices. Externally, fragmented procurement between donor-driven and government-led acquisitions leads to the introduction of devices without government oversight, limiting central tracking and complicating procurement and maintenance planning. Funding constraints further restrict the ability to acquire and sustain essential devices. Although regulatory frameworks promote transparency, they often result in a proliferation of device types that are difficult to manage over time. Internally, poor coordination between procurement and planning departments leads to delays and misalignment with facility readiness. In addition, weak monitoring and evaluation systems hinder follow-up on device functionality and prevent evidence-based decision-making. Finally, procurement outcomes are shaped by device-specific factors, including maintenance needs, spare parts availability, and alignment with clinical workflows, which are not consistently addressed in procurement processes, increasing the risk that devices will become underutilised or non-functional.

Based on these findings, the research concludes that supporting the sustained adoption of high-cost medical devices in Malawi requires shifting from cost-driven acquisition models to more strategic procurement processes that incorporate the Total Cost of Ownership (TCO). Procurement decisions should account for long-term costs such as maintenance, spare parts, operation, and supplier service commitments. Additionally, establishing a centralised national inventory and tracking system for medical devices would improve oversight, support more accurate needs assessments, and enhance future procurement planning. Moving toward evidence-based procurement will require the development of monitoring and evaluation systems to track device functionality and usage over time, ensuring that medical devices remain operational and integrated into healthcare delivery.

Beyond procurement processes, institutional design also influences procurement outcomes. A better balance is needed between centralised technical expertise and local facility input to improve the alignment of procurement decisions with clinical needs and usability. Integration of usability assessments at the need identification stage could help ensure that selected medical devices are both clinically essential and aligned with existing workflows. At the same time, navigating the trade-offs between transparency, competition, and standardisation is essential. While open competition remains important for fairness, moving toward a more standardised selection of device types could simplify maintenance, training, and spare parts sourcing, thereby supporting long-term usability and integration into clinical workflows.

In conclusion, this research underscores that the sustained adoption of high-cost medical devices in Malawi requires rethinking both procurement processes and the broader institutional frameworks in which they are embedded. Aligning procurement with healthcare system capacities requires moving beyond cost-driven acquisitions toward approaches that account for long-term usability, maintenance, and operation. Embedding these elements into procurement planning, alongside the development of monitoring and reporting mechanisms, would help ensure that procurement decisions are aligned with real needs and capacities within healthcare facilities. Equally important is addressing institutional design to ensure that procurement processes are supported by governance structures capable of integrating clinical, technical, and operational perspectives. By aligning procurement with the realities of healthcare system capacities and embedding long-term considerations, Malawi can move from acquiring medical devices to ensuring their sustained use. These insights are critical for policymakers and practitioners seeking to strengthen healthcare systems and promote sustainable outcomes from medical device investments.
... Read more

This thesis examines how venture capital (VC) practices adapt when applied to token-based startups, a fast-growing but under-explored segment of the entrepreneurial ecosystem. Using a mixed-method approach, the study combines a structured literature review with seven expert interviews, integrating insights through a thematic analysis. The research develops a six-stage lifecycle model for token-based startups and formulates eight propositions comparing their development, communication, transparency, value-creation, investment structures, and governance mechanisms to those of traditional VC-backed startups. The interview findings broadly confirm these propositions while revealing additional nuances, such as iterative development loops, dual-audience communication challenges, market-infrastructure dependencies, and an expanded role for specialist VCs. The results show that token-based startups differ fundamentally from traditional ventures across organisational, financial, and strategic dimensions, and that industry practice is gradually converging with more established regulatory and business frameworks. The thesis contributes to emerging academic literature by offering a structured theoretical framework and providing empirical evidence on how VCs and founders navigate the distinct dynamics of token-based innovation. ... Read more

Proactivity in e-government and service design aims to revolutionize digital public services by having the government reach out to citizens based on data, life changes, or predicted events. This could streamline internal processes and enhance citizen well-being. However, the success of proactive services depends on their incorporation, design, and implementation. Values play a crucial role in these processes and are influenced by politics, governance, design processes, social factors, legislation, and technical possibilities, potentially leading to value conflicts.

This thesis examines the contextual conditions shaping the management of value conflicts in digital proactive public services, focusing on the Dutch Persoonlijke Regelingen Assistent (PRA) project, which aims to centralize Dutch regulations and provide proactive notifications and assistance. The project, still in its design phase, offers insights into how contextual conditions impact proactive application development. These findings can be extrapolated to broader proactive public services contexts.

The thesis uses existing literature to identify crucial values and assess their manifestation in proactive applications. It employs the Value Sensitive Design (VSD) approach to construct value hierarchies, identifying conflicting and enabling values. Strategies for handling value conflicts are evaluated and extended with public policy design strategies, highlighting the influence of contextual conditions on value conflicts and their resolution.

A framework of conditions was established to illustrate their impact on value conflicts and strategies. Political conditions, such as ideology-based values and funding priorities, influence dominant values. Governance conditions affect practical matters like funding, project timelines, and stakeholder involvement. Procedural conditions in the design process involve key trade-offs. Legal and technical conditions are crucial for data processing applications, impacting privacy and proactivity conflicts. Social conditions determine the application's reception and effectiveness, with sensitivity to expectations, stigma, and readiness being vital.

Public organizations must set realistic objectives, consider contextual conditions, and anticipate outcomes at each step. A chosen strategy for managing value conflicts from the start can ease decision-making. Evaluated strategies have varying practicality and benefits, complicated by the context-dependency of value conflicts. A learning strategy is recommended, involving multiple strategies and stakeholder coordination to gather practical insights.

To formalize this process, appointing an organization at the meso-level of governance is suggested. This organization would evaluate project queries based on past cases and value conflict consequences, bridging the gap between macro-level government legislation and micro-level standards. This body of knowledge would guide responsible innovation in the public sector, enabling designers, policymakers, and scientists to learn from each other’s cases and contribute collectively to progress.

In summary, proactivity in digital public services holds promise but requires careful consideration of contextual conditions and value conflicts. A meso-level organization can provide the necessary guidance and knowledge to navigate these challenges effectively. ... Read more

The search for the key drivers of economic growth in capitalist economies has been a focal point of economic analysis since the days of classical economists like Adam Smith, David Ricardo, and Karl Marx. To better understand growth and the forces enabling capitalist economies to expand their production of goods and services, economists often categorise economic factors into two independent groups.
On one hand, there are demand-side factors such as consumer spending and investment, which primarily drive economic fluctuations. On the other hand, there are supply-side factors like technological innovation and labour force growth, which set the potential output path of an economy. This potential output represents the maximum production level an economy can achieve without causing inflation, acting as a centre of gravity for actual economic dynamics.
Potential output is particularly crucial for Eurozone countries due to its significant role in fiscal regulations and monetary policy. Fiscal rules, such as those governing structural budget balance, require countries to align their budgets with potential output to ensure sustainable public finances. The European Central Bank (ECB) monitors the output gap—the difference between actual and potential output—to assess whether economies are approaching inflationary limits. Both fiscal and monetary policies thus rely heavily on the concept of potential output, highlighting its importance in maintaining economic stability and growth.
This research aims to enhance the understanding of economic growth through a simple demand-led model that incorporates hysteresis—the lasting effects of demand-side dynamics on potential output. Despite increasing recognition of hysteresis, few studies have developed straightforward dynamic models integrating these mechanisms. Notable exceptions include the work of Fazzari, Ferri, and Variato (2020), who examined hysteresis effects on US economic growth using a simple demand-led model. This study extends their framework, using Italy's economy from 1979 to 2018 as a case study, and introduces key conceptual and methodological changes to improve model accuracy and uncertainty analysis.
Italy's economic context, marked by low and stagnant GDP and labour productivity growth, high unemployment, and widespread involuntary part-time employment, provides a unique setting for this investigation. The Fazzari, Ferri, and Variato (2020) model is demand-led, with potential output as the upper boundary for economic dynamics. Demand-side factors, especially autonomous components like government spending and exports, shape the system's evolution. Hysteresis mechanisms link potential output to changes in unemployment rates and capital stock accumulation, challenging traditional views that separate supply-side and demand-side dynamics.
Dynamic simulations of the model across various scenarios yield critical insights. Accurate simulations require specific values for key parameters, such as the propensity to save and the long-run target capital-output ratio. The model reveals a trade-off between accurately describing demand-side and supply-side dynamics, particularly regarding labour productivity evolution post-1990s and general labour supply trends over the study period.
The empirical simulations show that the stability of steady-state solutions depends mainly on certain demand-side parameters. The adjustment speed for expected growth (α)—indicating how many years of past yearly growth are used by households to form future growth expectations (with higher α implying a longer memory)—and the adjustment speed for the capital-output ratio (λ)—showing how quickly the actual capital-output ratio converges to its long-run value set by firms—are critical.
Accurate scenarios for the Italian economy fall outside the unstable range, ensuring stable economic dynamics. However, the value of α suggests caution due to the implied long memories of past growth in forming future expectations.
Our research introduces unique conceptual and methodological tools that enhance the analysis of economic growth. The use of Causal Loop Diagrams (CLDs) visually represents feedback loops and interdependencies within the model, making complex relationships easier to understand and communicate. Additionally, our empirical analysis employs the All-Factors-At-a-Time (AAT) method, which allows for simultaneous variation of all model parameters across their feasible ranges. This approach offers a more comprehensive and realistic examination of non-linear systems compared to traditional methods.
For policymakers, recognising hysteresis and integrating these advanced tools into economic models can lead to more informed and effective decision-making. By considering the long-term impacts of demand-side policies on potential output, and using visual and comprehensive analytical methods, policymakers can better navigate the complexities of economic growth and stability. This research advocates for a more integrated and nuanced approach to economic policy, fostering broader dialogue and enhancing our collective understanding of growth dynamics.
While this research provides valuable insights, it acknowledges several limitations. Methodologically, the study relied on assumptions about the initial capital-output ratio and growth rates due to a lack of initial data, potentially impacting model accuracy. The empirical approach, while intuitive, may lack the mathematical rigour needed for robust results, and more advanced econometric techniques could enhance parameter estimates. Conceptually, the model struggled to capture supply-side dynamics, particularly labour productivity stagnation and labour supply evolution. The reliance on exogenous inputs for autonomous demand components limits the model’s ability to fully replicate real-world demand-side dynamics.
Future research should build on this work by expanding the current model to better capture case-specific information, particularly recognising the impact of austerity measures on Italy’s economy. Revising the hysteresis mechanisms is crucial to accurately reflect the dynamics of supply-side variables, incorporating factors such as labour protection legislation and financialisation proxies. Additionally, addressing inequality and ecological constraints within the model could provide a more comprehensive understanding of sustainable economic growth. These aspects are critical for enhancing the model’s applicability and relevance in public and policy debates.
Moreover, comparative analysis using different models, such as the Solow-Swan model, could offer unique perspectives on economic growth theories and their assumptions. Exploring the connection between economic modelling and policymaking, particularly how diverse economic theories are integrated into policymaking, presents another promising avenue. This could involve interviews with experts to understand how models are employed in major policymaking institutions and how a plurality of economic theories can be effectively communicated to the public. By addressing these areas, future research can enhance the robustness and applicability of economic growth models.
... Read more

This research looked into Algorithmic Systems used in the execution of the SUWI-law by executing agencies. It analysed the use and governance of these systems and their possible harms to citizens and society by means of an Actor Analysis and System-Theoretical Process Analysis (STPA), supported by semi-structured interviews.

It aimed to answer the following research question:
How can a systems safety perspective combined with an actor perspective be used to provide a sociotechnical description of algorithmic systems, their governance and possible hazards at agencies executing the SUWI-law?

By means of the Actor Analysis, this research was able to describe the actor field and implications of it on the problem situation. The main insight from the actor field was the presence of ‘double binds’, several value conflicts that trouble use of AS. STPA, a method that focusses on safety of a system as a whole rather than individual components, provided the ability to map algorithmic systems within their sociotechnical context. It focussed on three hazards, which are system states that lead to accidents. These three hazards were the use of flawed logic in algorithmic systems, the use of flawed information in algorithmic system, and the flawed understanding citizens have of the role of the systems. They were explored through a Safety Control Structure, which displays controlled processes and those controlling them, and the construction of causal scenarios.
Semi-structured interviews focussed on the governance of algorithmic systems, and possible improvements. They provided empirical input for STPA.
The main contributions of this research are the proposal it makes for a sociotechnical description of algorithmic systems and their harms, using concepts derived from STPA. Such descriptions can be used to build shared understanding of algorithmic systems and their harms. It showed how such a description can be constructed using an Actor Analysis, interviews, and STPA, describing how these methods work together.
... Read more

This study examines how sustainable commuting alternatives can be designed and implemented to maximise adoption among hospital employees, particularly considering non-standard employment schedules and location-specific challenges. Conducted as part of the 'Living Lab Sustainable Transport' initiative, the research aims to provide insights for the Academic Medical Center and Pon Mobility Nederland on how to maximise the adoption of eco-friendly commuting options, while addressing the unique challenges of shift work and irregular schedules. By analysing employee preferences for alternative commuting options, such as cycling, e-bike leasing, shared e-bikes and public transport, the study aims to offer practical recommendations for promoting a modal shift away from car-based commutes. A Discrete Choice Experiment (DCE) was conducted to assess key factors influencing commuting decisions, including financial incentives, travel time, and perceived comfort. Findings indicate that employees with irregular schedules require additional support, particularly regarding safety concerns and flexibility for off-peak commutes. Financial incentives, such as full public transport reimbursement, e-bike travel allowances, and increased parking costs, were effective in encouraging more sustainable commuting behaviours. The results contribute valuable insights for the healthcare sector and other industries facing similar commuting challenges, offering a framework for promoting sustainable commuting practices while addressing the unique constraints of shift work and location-specific factors. ... Read more

In our thesis, we conducted an in-depth exploration of the integration of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in public sector decision-making, focusing particularly on AI case routing for welfare benefits allocation. Initially, our research was guided by a techno-optimistic viewpoint, presuming that municipalities would inherently benefit from AI adoption. However, as our study progressed, we encountered the complexities and challenges inherent in the practical implementation of AI in public services.

We employed the Design Science Research methodology, utilizing a diverse array of methods including literature reviews, case studies, expert interviews, and system safety analysis. Our objective was to develop a method-type artifact to enhance decision-making in civil services, with a special emphasis on the application of AI in welfare benefits allocation. Our findings indicated that AI implementation in the public sector is highly context-dependent, requiring a tailored approach that addresses various technical, organizational, and cultural barriers.

Throughout our research, we identified critical factors such as the need for transparency, fairness, and accountability in AI systems. We recognized the importance of adopting a balanced perspective that considers both AI and non-AI solutions. Our study highlighted the potential benefits of AI in public services, such as increased efficiency and improved quality of decision-making. However, we also noted significant challenges in ensuring system safety and maintaining ethical standards.

Through expert interviews and a detailed system safety analysis, we emphasized the necessity of establishing clear rules for the responsible use of AI case routing and addressing the associated risks. Our research concluded that AI might not always be the most suitable approach, particularly if safety concerns and ethical considerations outweigh the potential benefits.

In summary, our thesis underscores the need for a critical and balanced approach to the integration of AI in public services. We advocate for a holistic strategy that involves collaboration among government, academia, industry, and civil society. This approach is vital to harness the potential benefits of AI while mitigating risks and ensuring the well-being of society. ... Read more

The digitalization of European universities’ tool infrastructure has transformed how institutions operate and deliver education to students, from sharing content on learning management systems to hosting lectures on video-conferencing platforms. However, despite many new benefits of digital education technologies (DETs) and their contribution to reaching the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 4 targets for Quality Education, it also comes with new challenges like user privacy, environmental impacts, and shifting power dynamics between institutions and service providers. Additionally, concerns have been raised regarding the responsible development and longevity of the university’s digital infrastructure given the recent rapid digitalization trend and how new DETs are selected.

Sustainability assessment can be a useful model to evaluate an institution’s DET selection process as it provides a holistic evaluation through a multidimensional perspective to develop a more responsible and future-proof approach to digital education infrastructure. However, a multidimensional sustainability analysis has not been applied in the context of DET selection. Therefore, it is unclear to decision-makers what sustainable DET looks like and what role sustainability plays in the DET selection process. This study addressed this gap by answering the following question: How are European higher education institutions incorporating sustainability into selecting digital education technologies?

The sustainability dimensions of DETs were formulated by conducting a literature review of contemporary models, encompassing the environmental, social, and technological aspects. A more sustainable DET increases the positive impact along each of these dimensions. An environmentally sustain- able DET preserves and protects natural resources by reducing the environmental impact through its hardware and software. A socially sustainable DET increases equal access to education for all learners, regardless of socioeconomic status, disabilities, or geographic location while preserving individual privacy. A technologically sustainable DET is long-lasting, possesses the necessary functionalities, and balances a tool’s simplicity, openness, and ownership. While most sustainability models include the economic dimension, due to the university’s non-profit nature and the common prioritization of economic factors above other criteria in decision-making, this study excluded the economic dimension to examine the other dimensions more closely. Furthermore, the pedagogical dimension was omitted due to its sustainability considerations typically arising after the implementation of a DET, rather than during its selection stage and therefore is beyond the scope of this research.

Four key actors involved in the DET selection process were identified through an actor analysis. These include the university’s Head of IT who oversees the institution’s infrastructure system and their IT tool specialists who provide technical expertise, service providers whose products comprise the DET market, and education associations who help universities procure DETs. Ten semi-structured interviews were conducted with European university Heads of IT to gather data on the current DET selection process and the challenges institutions face when incorporating sustainability into DET selection.

The sustainability dimensions were used in conjunction with grounded theory open and axial coding analysis to evaluate the sustainability of current DET selection processes. The results showed that decision-makers predominantly utilize the EU-regulated tendering process to select DETs, which comprises minimal sustainability criteria while assigning significant importance to the economic factor (i.e., DET price). Additionally, interviewees shared they prioritize social and technological sustainability, specifically the privacy, data security, and functionality of DETs over other sustainability criteria. On the other hand, environmental sustainability is underrepresented in DET selection criteria. This is primarily due to the lack of available data and initiatives collecting DET environmental impact metrics, making it difficult for decision-makers to create relevant requirements and kickout criteria to compare DET options based on environmental sustainability. Finally, the analysis illustrated the three most common challenges that hinder sustainable DET selection are the limited financial and human resources, the insignificant or lack of sustainability criterion weighting, and the long and inflexible tender process.

Overall, this study contributes to filling the knowledge gap in understanding the sustainability of current European universities’ DET selection process and highlights key challenges decision-makers and researchers should focus on to improve the sustainability of digital education technologies. Future research can build on this work by expanding the scope beyond Northwestern European institutions, interviewing other decision-maker actors, and developing a standardized selection process for sustainable DET selection.

Additionally, recommendations were made to the four actor groups as well as general advice for universities to increase DET sustainability. The Head of IT should prioritize the environmental aspect in DET criteria and collaborate with service providers to address environmental impact metrics. They should also encourage the development of new tools by teachers and students. The IT tool specialist should engage in co-development with service providers for better tool support and to ensure a secure and functional digital infrastructure. Service providers need to align their products with sustainability criteria, propose pilot projects to universities, and share environmental impact metrics with relevant stakeholders. Education associations should organize collective efforts to enhance the sustainability of the DET tendering process and offer streamlined services like joint procurement and model contracts to simplify the selection process. Universities could transition to renewable energy to reduce DET’s carbon footprint, implement e-waste recycling and disposal programs, and support research into sustainable DET. ... Read more

With the increasing need for entangling the complexity around worldwide crises and transitions, the transdisciplinary collaboration between governmental organisations, multidisciplinary academic institutions and companies is becoming increasingly crucial. Involving citizens within the policy-making processes regarding those crises and transitions already led to various positive outcomes, for example increased awareness, understanding of policies, new innovations, and acceptance of decision-making. This participatory involvement is now effectively executed through the implementation of Participatory Value Evaluations (PVEs). Since HEIs need to fulfill a Third Mission, involving employees within their policy making might lead to several benefits as well. This master thesis explores the added value of applying a PVE within the higher education institution (HEI) context, analysing both the perspectives of employees and the policymakers, and therefore provide valuable insights for future implementations of PVEs within professional bureaucracies. The results show a pivotal role for using the PVE approach within HEIs, compared to the citizen-to-government context. However, further research is needed to establish design principles and preconditions around the PVE approach within a HEI. ... Read more

Educational technologies play a critical role in the European action plan to strengthen digital literacy skills by 2027 and solve Grand Challenges related to work and education by 2030, as the global community shifts increasingly into the Digital Age. Four technology types are examined: face-to-face, online, hybrid or blended, and video learning. Policy makers who wish to weigh user preferences and acceptance of educational technology types will find they may better address, for example, the transition from school to hybrid work, as well as mitigate the shortage of teaching hours within The Netherlands. Acceptance is operationalized as ‘behavioral intention’ to use a technology type. However, models of acceptance cannot determine whether students and schools would successfully adopt these forms of learning (or technology types) after implementation, regardless of their reliability in measuring factors like BI/ATT, PE, or PEOU. Limited research has been conducted locally and nationally; literature case studies typically measure one or two learning forms. Moreover, theory suggests that, if a (learning) technology is accepted, then successful adoption is likely. Therefore, I aim to explore “To what extent do Dutch students of middle and higher education, ages 16-25, prefer and will theoretically accept different educational technology types?” This study employs a quantitative survey to rank learning preferences and assess its acceptance via a modified Technology Acceptance Model (TAM). This study intends to propose an emergence preference model (EPM) composed of a modified technology acceptance model (mTAM) to challenge the theoretical concept of preference as a robust measure to supply statistical information in support of acceptance studies. The model was validated with PLS-SEM, and the results were delimited by the modified TAM. The results showed secondary school students prefer Face-to-face learning while university students’ preference is well distributed. The reasons for these technological preferences were comprehensive and well explained by chosen acceptance factors. The preference of student’s technology for each acceptance factor was key to showing this relation. Therefore, user preference and user acceptance indeed provide comprehensive knowledge to decision makers who consider weighing acceptance. ... Read more

When attempting to enter a market, it is of the utmost importance to make a well-thought decision. Numerous academics have examined the first-mover advantage literature to determine whether entering first, second, or late is more advantageous. After many decades, there is still no consensus, and it appears that we are in a dialogue of the deaf. This thesis gives a list of first-mover advantages and disadvantages and discusses the symmetry between first-mover advantages and first-mover disadvantages, as well as first-mover advantages and second-mover disadvantages, in order to extent the topic. This list alone is not enough to settle the debate, so we introduce the pattern of development and diffusion. The pattern of development and diffusion contextualises the problem and shows the demonstrates the effect of first-mover advantages on the development of a product category. The relationship demonstrates that a setting can be either dynamic (a market entry has a substantial impact on the product category) or static (a market entry has little effect).
This thesis proposes a model to illustrate the factors that influence the decision to enter the market. Aspects that influence the formulation of a market entry strategy are included in the model. For the sake of simplicity, only the strategy to enter a market has been investigated. Next to the model, we created a flowchart that describes the steps required to develop a market entry strategy. Eventually the goal is to make a well-thought decision. The dialogue of the deaf on first, second or late being most favourable has been the cause of this thesis but the conclusion is none of those. The most important part of first-mover advantages and disadvantages is the effect they bring along with the entry into a market. This thesis claims that first-mover advantages are advantages and disadvantages that may be evaluated over the development of a product category, rather than belonging to any particular order. The weights of (dis)advantages differ over the course of the development so at different points in time, different advantages can be utilised. The first-mover (dis)advantages present aspects that can be utilised at a particular situation. The decision maker should foresee whether, given the current (dis)advantages, after its introduction the situation is most favourable or if the situation is most favourable when you wait, and competitors have entered the market. The combination of the pattern of development and first-mover advantages show this principle and show why the dialogue of the deaf on market order is not useful. The decision to enter a market has never been simple, and it likely never will be. This thesis offers direction for the decision-making procedure and explains how to comprehend it. The complexities of market entry decision making are not yet resolved, but a well-thought decision is getting closer. ... Read more

Cities around the world constitute complex systems, as sets of sub-components that are connected and interact with each other. Due to this inherent complexity, there are numerous emerging challenges that need to be tackled. In those complex environments, various-interest groups collaborate and compete to achieve their goals and interests, constituting a vital part of urban planning. The advancement of technology and ICT, and the abiding need to keep citizens engaged, marked a critical shift in the way that urban planning confronts the increasingly contemporary complex issues. This advancement has offered citizens a way to digitally participate in urban planning procedures, overcoming certain limitations, while posing, also, challenges related to the level of its effectiveness.
While many methods and tools have been developed over the years, for enhancing citizen engagement and the effectiveness of public participation, there seems to be an evident gap in substantial and two-way collaboration among the (relevant) urban stakeholders. This thesis project aims to hark the perspectives and needs of the urban stakeholders, translating them into a conceptual design of a digital public participation platform. Next to that, except for the importance of the platform itself, as a tool, the focus was also given to participation, as a process, considering that such a platform could and should act as a promoter of effective public participation rather than a stand-alone solution. Consequently, the main research question of this study is: Which characteristics need to be included in designing a public participation platform so that it can enhance citizen engagement and facilitate more effective public participation in urban planning?
For this research, a design science research approach was chosen. A theoretical background was developed on existing theories, methods and frameworks related to public participation and digital platforms. Data collection was conducted using multiple methods, including workshops, semi-structured interviews, and questionnaires, while data analysis was conducted inductively, to identify all the emerging patterns and their interrelations.
From the data analysis, five core themes emerged: General findings; (De)Motivational factors for public participation; Characteristics; Technical requirements; Technological features. Retaining these themes, the analyzed results were then critically synthesized, both in qualitative and quantitative terms, to provide a holistic overview.
Combing the obtained results, the main research outputs were developed, providing an overall answer to the main research question. First, a trifold validation of the results, related to the past, present, and future, was conducted, fulfilling the rigor and design cycle of the design science research, and attaining a continuous assessment. Building upon the evaluation results, for the platform as a tool, a conceptual design was developed, based on the different views of the urban stakeholders. For the process of public participation in general, a set of guidelines was developed, providing recommendations on how to enhance citizen engagement and the effectiveness of public participation, based on the different views of the urban stakeholders.
This thesis concludes with some important final remarks, including limitations, recommendations for future research, research relevance, and the author’s final reflections on the research.
... Read more

Law enforcement occurs in a complex environment that contains a variety of actors that interact with one another. These interactions create emerging collective behavior over time. For example, inspectors will try to influence non-compliant actors to become compliant, while inspectees may comply or thwart inspections. Inspection agencies such as the Inspectie Leefomgeving en Transport (ILT) evaluate inspectees’ adherence to regulation and aim to boost compliance within an industry. However, they have limited resources and a wide range of potential societal challenges to address. They face an action dilemma, having to decide on what actions to take without full knowledge of whether their actions lead to higher compliance or improved social outcomes. Previous studies of the inspection environment rely on behavioral theories to investigate the underlying motivations of inspectees’ behavior. However, these theories presume inspectees’ motivations and characterize them homogeneously, often assuming they have perfect rationality. This leads to an inaccurate depiction of inspectees, reducing them to one-dimensional actors when in reality, their behavior is motivated by multiple factors and can be idiosyncratic. Data science techniques provide the opportunity to understand behavioral phenomena with data, leveraging datasets to identify statistical patterns in behavior to help inspectorates make decisions within a degree of certainty. A particular modeling technique that focuses on representing empirical data without assuming behavioral motivations is phenomenological modeling. Coupled with agent-based modeling (ABM), phenomenological modeling allows the researcher to simulate possible outcomes of observed behavior before the underlying motivations are understood. This provides insight into the macro-level behavior produced by micro-level interactions within the complex inspection environment... ... Read more