This thesis investigates to what extent and under what conditions it is likely that the Netherlands will meet its national target of reducing the average use of household drinking water from 129 in 2021 to 100 litres per person per day [lpppd] in 2035, as described in the National Plan of Action for Drinking Water Conservation (2024). This plan, published by the Dutch Ministry of Infrastructure and Water Management, was formulated due to growing concerns about anticipated drinking water shortages by 2030. Along with other policy measures, it led the Dutch government to attempt to shift toward demand-management measures. However, the effectiveness of the recently introduced and planned conservation measures remains uncertain, especially in light of various future developments.

This research assesses the potential impact of the proposed household-level policy measures using a model with a bottom-up demand component combined with a higher-level supply component. It applies the methodology of Exploratory System Dynamics Modelling and Analysis. An approach to execute a scenario-based exploration under deep uncertainty, simulating the combined effects of demographic dynamics, increased periods of drought, and economic growth in twelve potential future scenarios. As each of the ten drinking water companies operates within their own demographic and geographical context, they all face their own challenges, and different results are generated.

These results show that in none of the simulated scenarios for any of the drinking water companies, household demand actually falls to the policy target of 100 lpppd by 2035. Instead, demand only decreases to around 120 lpppd in 2035, with slight variations between regions and exogenous factors.
However, that decrease persists and reaches 110 lpppd by 2050. Regarding the supply side of the drinking water distribution system, total household and industrial demand actually increases significantly in most scenarios up to 2030 due to population and economic growth. Regional variation further highlights that some water companies may encounter local shortages, even if national demand remains within its supply limits. A key outcome of this research is the demonstration of a policy-focused modelling framework that policy makers and researchers can reuse and extend.

These findings show that the current mix of policy interventions is unlikely to be sufficient to meet the policy objective set for the conservation of drinking water. Nevertheless, demand management is one element of several in drinking water management. The simulations also show that when drinking water companies are successful in developing additional fresh water sources the challenges of increasing drinking water demand could be met.

However, more impactful policy interventions could be made still if decisive action is taken in both the implementation and development of further demand management strategies. There remains a lot to gain by further exploring the limits and opportunities of the Dutch drinking water distribution system to support the implementation of more robust and future-proof policies.

The Netherlands is undergoing a major energy transition, aiming to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 55 percent by 2030 and to reach full climate neutrality by 2050. Hydrogen is expected to play a key role in this transition, particularly in industrial sectors where electrification is technically challenging or economically unviable. In support of this goal, the Dutch government is investing in large-scale hydrogen production and the phased development of a national hydrogen backbone, led by HyNetwork Services. This network will connect five major industrial clusters by 2033. However, it does not extend to the many medium-sized industrial sites dispersed across the country, collectively referred to as Cluster 6. These firms, active in energy-intensive sectors such as food processing, chemicals, glass, and metals, face significant barriers to adopting hydrogen, including high connection costs and limited infrastructure access. Additionally, many of these companies have high energy demands and rely on processes that are difficult to electrify. Combined with widespread congestion on the electricity grid, these factors severely limit their ability to transition away from fossil fuels, leaving few viable pathways for decarbonization.

This thesis explores the coordination challenge that arises from this situation. Medium-sized firms cannot commit to hydrogen without reliable infrastructure, while infrastructure providers are reluctant to invest without visible, concentrated demand. To examine how different planning strategies can address this deadlock, the thesis develops an agent-based model that simulates interactions between a central infrastructure planner and spatially distributed industrial users. The planner combines the roles of Hydrogen Distribution Network Operator and Distribution System Operator and responds to firm-level adoption decisions under real-world constraints such as investment cycles, capacity limitations, and policy changes. The model evaluates three rollout strategies: a reactive approach in which infrastructure follows demand, a proactive approach in which infrastructure anticipates demand, and a delay scenario in which no infrastructure is built. Outcomes are assessed using a Societal Net Present Value metric that captures financial costs, emissions reductions, and avoided grid reinforcements.

The simulation results show that proactive infrastructure rollout significantly improves hydrogen adoption and societal outcomes. Even modest anticipatory investments, when timed to align with firms’ decision-making cycles, help overcome coordination failures, accelerate emissions reductions, and increase infrastructure efficiency. In contrast, reactive strategies lead to fragmented, delayed development and fail to unlock widespread decarbonization. The findings also highlight the importance of policy design: hydrogen subsidies are most effective when paired with visible infrastructure, while uncoordinated electricity subsidies can fragment adoption and reduce system coherence.

The thesis concludes that enabling the hydrogen transition for medium-sized industry requires a shift from reactive to anticipatory planning. This requires urgently defining the role and responsibilities of future Hydrogen Distribution Network Operators (HDNOs), along with granting them a clear mandate to invest ahead of demand. Cost recovery mechanisms and supportive regulatory frameworks must enable timely, coordinated rollout. Only by aligning infrastructure deployment with the decarbonization timelines of medium-sized industry can regions like Cluster 6 be fully integrated into the energy transition and contribute meaningfully to national climate targets.

Urged by international accords such as the Paris Agreement and the IPCC’s global warming report, the Dutch government is in the process of developing the national industrial hydrogen market across five main industry clusters. In addition, regional hydrogen demand is being explored to complement the national hydrogen backbone by connecting decentralized industrial customers outside the five clusters through regional hydrogen distribution networks. This emerging regional industrial hydrogen market is collectively referred to as Cluster 6.

Hydrogen distribution network operators (HDNOs) are expected to play a key role in this transition as neutral market facilitators at the regional level. However, as heavily regulated entities, HDNOs are dependent on appropriate regulatory frameworks. The EU’s Hydrogen and Gas Decarbonisation Package introduces a legal framework for third-party access (TPA), allowing Member States to adopt regulated (rTPA), negotiated (nTPA), or hybrid (hnTPA) regimes. In the Dutch context, regional TPA regulation remains under development. The implications of these regimes for HDNOs and regional market development are currently unclear.

This research addresses the knowledge gap surrounding the influence of TPA regimes on stakeholder behaviour and hydrogen deployment in Cluster 6. Using a case study approach, the study combines literature review, expert interviews, and agent-based modelling (ABM) to analyse how TPA regimes affect stakeholder decision-making and infrastructure rollout. Interviews were held with system operators, a Cluster 6 representative, local industries, and the municipality. Interviewees highlighted challenges due to unclear stakeholder roles and financial responsibilities. While some industries expressed interest in hydrogen, driven by visionary entrepreneurs, most remained hesitant and dependent on broader commitment. High costs and uncertainty around hydrogen pricing were key concerns. Network operators indicated that key negotiation terms under nTPA could include prioritization based on project characteristics and investment cost division.

These insights informed the agent-based model. Industrial agents in the model decide to transition to hydrogen based on a motivation score derived from peer pressure, cost-benefit analysis (CBA), and waiting list incentives. Scenarios reflect different TPA regimes and associated rules: rTPA with first-come-first-served prioritization, and nTPA and hnTPA with negotiable prioritization and cost division.

The results show that TPA regimes significantly affect the pace and scale of hydrogen deployment. nTPA yields the most favourable outcomes for hydrogen off-take and CO₂ reduction, due to prioritization mechanisms that reward large, efficient projects. However, prioritization alone does not accelerate the timing of transition unless economic conditions are also supportive.

The investment cost division plays a stronger role in influencing the pace of transition. When industries are partially relieved of investment costs (under nTPA and hnTPA), the model shows shorter average waiting times and an earlier final transition year. Even when hnTPA switches to rTPA, results remain favourable due to early negotiation-phase decisions. Together, the negotiation terms support more ambitious transitions and earlier uptake.

Based on these findings, the study recommends clarifying stakeholder roles and financial responsibilities, assigning an HDNO, and considering scenario-based price guarantees. HDNOs could use negotiation terms to incentivize cost-efficient projects and introduce cost-sharing mechanisms to reduce risk. Both actors should promote visibility and flexibility in early-phase TPA design to increase motivation for hydrogen adoption.

In conclusion, third-party access regimes play a crucial role in shaping the regional hydrogen transition. While regulated TPA delays progress, negotiated TPA supports more ambitious and timely outcomes. Hybrid regimes offer a partial solution but depend on economic conditions and timing.

Green hydrogen is emerging as a critical component in the global fight against climate change, offering a viable pathway to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and facilitate the transition to a low carbon economy. As renewable energy sources (RES) like wind and solar become more prevalent, the challenge of their variable supply and the resulting green hydrogen production, demands robust energy storage solutions to ensure stability and flexibility in the energy supply. Underground hydrogen storage (UHS) in salt caverns has been technically proven as an efficient and effective method to address these challenges. However, despite the growing need for UHS, the development of such projects is lagging behind.
The study applied and extended the Institutional Network Analysis (INA) method to the case study of UHS in salt caverns in the Netherlands. The INA method is designed to identify institutional relations and analyse how formal and informal institutions interact within an institutional environment. In this research, the method was modified to focus exclusively on formal institutions, excluding informal institutions. Two extensions were made to deepen the analysis. First, a rule typology analysis was added to analyse the key characteristics of the formal rules within the institutional environment. Second, the approach was further refined by categorizing drivers behind institutional connections.
The application of the extended INA methodology uncovered several critical insights into the institutional environment governing UHS in salt caverns. First, the study identified a misalignment between the Dutch government’s policy intentions, as outlined in the Subsurface Spatial Planning Vision, and the actual practices dictated by the Environment and Planning Act. While the Act emphasizes participation and the opportunity for third parties to propose solutions, the Vision often rules out these possibilities by pre-determining the most fitting solution for a specific problem. Second, the analysis revealed an institutional void, particularly in the area of participatory governance. Although many formal institutions advocate for a participatory approach, the policy documents lack clear guidelines on how third parties should be included in decision-making processes and how the effectiveness of participation strategies should be assessed. Next, the study highlighted the central role of specific actors, such as the competent authority and project developers, who hold significant influence within the institutional network. Additionally, several objects related to permit applications and operational procedures were identified as potential bottlenecks due to their high embeddedness scores. Lastly, the analysis of the rule typology revealed that boundary, information, and position rules are the most prevalent within the institutional context. This suggests that the institutional environment is heavily focused on regulating access and exit within the context and ensuring the dissemination of information to relevant stakeholders.

This thesis addresses the critical issue of advancing the transition to renewable energy by focusing on onshore wind park development. In countries like the Netherlands, where population density is high, wind energy projects often face resistance from local communities. Local Energy Cooperatives (LECs) have emerged as a potential solution, offering a way to involve citizens more directly in the ownership and development of energy resources. This approach is seen as a way to reduce opposition and enhance acceptance of wind energy projects. The core aim of the thesis is to explore how structuring local participation through LECs can contribute to accelerating the energy transition.

To investigate this, the research employs an institutional case study approach, drawing on Williamson’s New Institutional Economics Theory and Ostrom’s Institutional Grammar. These frameworks are used to analyse both formal institution, such as laws and regulations, and informal ones, such as norms and shared values that influence the development of wind parks. By examining three specific cases, the study assesses how communication and benefit distribution are managed in wind park projects and how public and private actors interact within the broader institutional context. The analysis integrates high-level national policies with the detailed processes occurring at the case level, offering a comprehensive view of how rules, norms, and strategies shape the interactions and agreements between multiple actors involved in wind park development.

The findings of the thesis highlight several key insights. Firstly, the size and authority of the jurisdiction overseeing a wind park project significantly impact its development. Larger authorities tend to have more resources, which enables them to manage the project more effectively and engage with local residents. Additionally, location-specific planning and permitting procedures, particularly where pre-selected sites have been identified in land use plans, facilitate the development process by making information more accessible and improving the dynamics between local residents and project initiators. Early stakeholder engagement and thorough upfront planning are also critical to the success of wind park projects. Transparent communication with local residents from the outset is essential to reducing opposition and building trust, while a lack of engagement tends to foster resistance and delay development. Another important finding is that the current policies governing participation and benefit distribution are often inadequately implemented. More flexible policies that allow for interpretation by local authorities and are guided by strong principles rather than strict regulations tend to yield better results. Early engagement with stakeholders, combined with tailored compensatory measures that reflect the specific needs of different resident groups, leads to more efficient project outcomes. Understanding the differences between local resident groups, such as those living close to the project versus those living in nearby cities, helps to ensure that compensatory measures are appropriate and that development processes are shortened.

The research carries important implications for advising policymakers and project initiators. It emphasises the need for early and continuous engagement with local residents to build trust and reduce opposition. Moreover, flexible policies that allow for interpretation and are supported by clear principles are more effective than rigid regulations. Educating municipalities and expanding successful strategies, such as the Regional Energy Strategies, can further enhance the effectiveness of wind park projects. These steps can help authorities select competent project initiators and improve the implementation of participation processes. The scientific contribution of this thesis lies in its novel approach of linking high-level national institutions with case-specific participatory processes. By combining these perspectives, the research provides a deeper understanding of how formal policies and spatial planning laws are translated into practical actions at the local level. This dual-level analysis sheds light on the interactions between different actors and institutions, offering insights that had not been studied in such detail before. In doing so, the thesis contributes valuable knowledge to the field of institutional analysis and renewable energy development.

This research investigates the dynamic nature of place attachment and its critical role in shaping household-level climate change adaptation, particularly in the context of flood damage reduction. With the increasing frequency and intensity of flooding due to climate change, understanding the factors that drive households to adopt adaptation measures is essential for developing effective policies. While many studies have explored various psychological and social factors influencing household adaptation, this study uniquely focuses on place attachment—a concept that, despite its significance, has often been underexplored and treated as static in existing literature.

This thesis approaches place attachment as a multi-dimensional and dynamic factor that evolves over time and interacts with household adaptation decisions. By conceptualizing place attachment in this way, the research provides a more comprehensive understanding of its influence on flood resilience. The study employs an agent-based model (ABM) grounded in the Protection Motivation Theory (PMT) and is supported by statistical analysis, data analysis, and a review of existing literature. The case study is based in the Houston, Texas region, a coastal urban area prone to flooding, using survey data that includes specific measures of place attachment and household adaptation behaviors.

The research identifies two distinct dimensions of place attachment: active and traditional. Active place attachment involves engagement and participation in the community, while traditional place attachment reflects a more passive, sentimental connection to the place. These dimensions were found to be significant drivers of household adaptation measures such as elevation, wet-proofing, and dry-proofing. However, the study also reveals that the relationship between adaptation measures and place attachment is complex; certain adaptations can either strengthen or weaken place attachment, leading to mixed outcomes in terms of flood resilience.

Key findings include the synergistic effect of strong active and traditional place attachments, which together drive higher adaptation rates and more significant reductions in flood damage. The study also highlights the profound impact of flood experiences on household adaptation, which is heavily influenced by the state of place attachment. For example, if a flood weakens place attachment, the motivation to adapt decreases, leading to outcomes similar to those in scenarios where no flooding occurred. Additionally, the research underscores the importance of public protection measures, noting that while they can reduce flood risk, they may also inadvertently damage place attachment, thereby reducing household-level adaptation efforts.

From a policy perspective, the findings suggest that fostering both active and traditional place attachments can be a powerful tool in motivating households to implement flood adaptation measures. Policymakers should consider strategies that enhance place attachment as part of broader efforts to improve flood resilience.

Despite the valuable insights provided, the research acknowledges several limitations, including a small sample size in later survey waves and the reliance on limited literature for modeling dynamic place attachment. The absence of panel data to capture the evolution of place attachment over time is also noted as a limitation. Future research should aim to address these gaps by conducting larger, more targeted surveys and collecting longitudinal data to better understand the factors that influence place attachment and its role in household adaptation.

Hydrogen is a crucial element in the transition to a sustainable energy system, with the Netherlands poised to use it in transportation, heating, and energy-intensive processes. Due to its existing gas infrastructure and strategic location, the Netherlands has the potential to become a leader in hydrogen technology, distribution, and trade. Despite numerous announcements and plans, the development of hydrogen distribution networks has yet to fully take off. European initiatives such as the European Hydrogen Backbone promote cross-border cooperation and hydrogen market formation. In the Netherlands, HyNetwork Services (HNS) is tasked with developing a national hydrogen network connecting major industrial hubs. However, at the regional level, no responsible parties have been appointed, and regulations are lacking. To develop efficient and effective regional hydrogen distribution networks, a clear regulatory framework is needed to provide stakeholders with security, clarity, and direction.

This research aimed to analyze the current and upcoming regulations influencing hydrogen distribution networks and to formulate possible reforms to accelerate their development. The main research question was: “How can regulatory frameworks influence the development of Dutch regional hydrogen distribution networks?” The research methodology involved a comprehensive literature review, stakeholder identification, and institutional analysis. The Institutional Analysis and Development (IAD) framework was employed to examine the regulatory context, while Institutional Grammar (IG) was used to simplify regulatory documents into institutional statements. Institutional Network Analysis (INA) provided a detailed map of these statements and their interactions. Data collection included document analysis and semi-structured interviews with key stakeholders from regulatory bodies, industry, and overarching organizations. These interviews offered crucial insights into the perspectives of actors in the Dutch hydrogen sector regarding current regulations, perceived barriers and drivers, and preferred changes or additions.

Key findings revealed that the primary regulatory documents governing hydrogen projects—the Environment and Planning Act, the Gas Act, and the Electricity Act—lack the specificity needed to support hydrogen network development. Upcoming regulations, such as the Energy Act and the EU Decarbonisation Package, emphasize integrating renewable energy sources, specifying roles in the future system, and laying the foundation for a hydrogen market. Stakeholders perceive the current regulatory environment as fragmented and insufficient, necessitating clearer guidelines and more supportive policies to reduce uncertainties and foster investment.

Identified barriers include the complexity of the permitting process, grid congestion, insufficient subsidy schemes, and the lack of norms and standards tailored to hydrogen. Conversely, drivers include the strategic importance of hydrogen in the energy transition, national and EU-level incentives, and hydrogen's potential to alleviate grid congestion and enhance energy security.

Based on document analysis and stakeholder interviews, several recommendations were made. These include simplifying the permitting process through increased flexibility in provincial ordinances, establishing a clear and robust subsidy scheme, implementing specific guidelines for hydrogen, and enhancing stakeholder collaboration. For regulatory bodies, it is advised to establish a dedicated national entity with Distribution System Operators (DSOs) to oversee hydrogen projects and streamline regulatory processes. DSOs should develop convincing development and investment plans, actively engage in the planning and development of hydrogen networks, and ensure regulatory alignment with energy transition goals.

The study also explored potential future strategies for regional hydrogen networks. These include the formation of independent hydrogen networks, expansion and integration of these networks into larger systems, and direct connections of regional clusters to the hydrogen backbone by DSOs. Addressing regulatory barriers and enhancing support mechanisms is essential for the Netherlands to lead in hydrogen technology and infrastructure development, contributing to national and global sustainability goals.

Renewable energy projects on land in the Netherlands face delays due to social resistance, driven by concerns over aesthetics, environment, and economics. Local energy communities have been identified as potential solutions to enhance social acceptance and overcome these barriers. The Dutch Climate Agreement targets 50% local ownership in onshore solar and wind projects to enhance public acceptance and project feasibility. Existing research highlights economic, institutional, and organizational barriers, yet limited research has been done on the internal governance structures of local energy communities. Moreover, no prior studies have explored the discrepancies between formal regulatory frameworks influencing design decisions and their practical application in Dutch local energy projects. This study employs Williamson’s four-layer model and Elinor Ostrom’s IAD framework to explore institutional design options for local energy communities in the Netherlands. Key findings reveal that European directives and Dutch laws support energy communities without specifying legal structures, allowing flexibility in governance structures. Practical implementations of institutional design options vary based on project needs and dynamics. However, most local energy communities adopt cooperative models and often establish separate entities like private limited companies to manage project associated risks. Based on the findings it is recommendated to organize local energy communities as cooperatives, addressing knowledge and resource gaps through partnerships with experienced entities, and establishing separate project entities to ensure local ownership and mitigate financial risks. This study provides practical insights for stakeholders navigating the complexities of local energy community projects.

Greenwashing can be defined as the mismatch between companies’ positive green communications and their activities that are counterproductive to the fight against climate change. Greenwashing companies can undermine the success of climate policies by hiding their climate footprints and prevent policymakers from realizing the need for further regulations. Thus, the identification of greenwashing should be done timely: this research sets out to find a semi-automated approach that can find evidence of greenwashing. The study of greenwashing is limited to the mismatch between companies’ communications on official websites and their lobbying activities in the European Union. Some steps of the design research approach were used namely the design development, demonstration, and evaluation (via a small-case evaluation) phases. The created approach measures companies’ communication levels of commitment to climate change using a GPT-based sentence classifier and then compares it to their levels of lobbying on climate change using keyword-based filtering on the EU Transparency Register, the official lobbying source for the EU. The proposed method is semi-automated at this stage and can inform a greenwashing appraisal, but it has issues with the accuracy of its analysis. This research partially fills the gaps in the greenwashing literature and advances the research in the use of GPT for classification purposes and in the field of climate lobbying in the EU. This research can teach the implementation of new EU regulations that aim at banning greenwashing: the more detailed the definitions of greenwashing that are used, the easier to find greenwashing automatically, and, therefore, the faster the enforcement of the ban can be.

Energy poverty is an increasingly important issue. While vulnerable households are especially at risk in the energy transition, energy poverty effects of the transition are unknown. In Delft, a district heating network based on geothermal energy is planned. The distributive justice aspects of heat networks in the heating transition remain largely unexplored. In this master's thesis, an agent-based model is developed to explore inequalities in energy poverty and access to energy that might arise from the switch to a heat network. The thesis aims to explore the scenarios in which these inequalities can occur and for what types of households, and to determine policy interventions that contribute to a just and inclusive heat network. The extent and distribution of energy poverty and heat network access was explored in multiple energy price contexts, in combination with the following interventions: lower energy tax for gas use below average use and high energy tax for gas use above average use; vouchers to cover upfront costs of heat network connection; renovation of dwellings with poor energetic quality; and awareness campaigns to reduce energy use. The results show that the current district heating pricing structure increases inequality. These costs should be shifted from the high fixed costs to the variable costs to reduce energy poverty in households with low energy consumption. In addition, it was found that building renovation could decrease inequality and energy poverty. Recommendations are made for policy, research and the development of new energy poverty indicators to reduce energy poverty and inequality in the energy transition.

The Dutch Government has prioritized the construction sector for a circular economy transition. This research aims to understand the circular transition in the context of the Netherlands’ construction and demolition waste management system. By using a mix-methods approach based on systems analysis and a material flow model, this study assesses the environmental impacts of 7 identified policies. The results found that implementing mandatory pre-demolition audits performed the best in increasing the upcycling and reuse rate from 8% to 23% by not only focusing on source reduction but also prioritizing reuse. The policy measure which focuses on waste identification, separation, and collection at the source with sorting obligations performed the best to recover the most amount of waste (20.3 million tonnes/year) and increase the total recovery rate to 83%. A scenario analysis done by clustering policies for a strategic focus found that recovering more waste on its own will not reduce carbon emissions in the long run unless it’s redirected towards low-carbon destinations. A recommendation to design effective circular policies for waste management is to include carbon emissions and upcycling and reuse-based indicators.
From an academic perspective, this study integrates a partial life-cycle assessment into a material flow analysis by integrating carbon emissions into a material flow model. By synthesizing and using a multi-criteria framework to calculate potential impacts, this research adds to a growing literature in policy design. The mix-methods approach used can also be adapted to other waste-based industries with a similar supply chain background.

As the urban population grows worldwide and cities are becoming increasingly unequal and segregated, Urban Commons emerge as a potential driver of inclusion and resilience for city dwellers. According to Feinberg et al. (2021), Urban Commons can promote social, environmental, and economic resilience, and Park et al. (2020) suggest they can act as a haven for the excluded. Commons could, therefore, become a policy alternative to address the grand urban challenges of the 21st Century.
However, it is still unclear whether the benefits of Urban Commons are ultimately accessible to the culturally and socioeconomically vulnerable. For instance, in a literature review study, Huron (2017) found significant uncertainties in how Urban Commons relate to feminism, race, gender, and ethnicity – factors that could constitute immaterial barriers of access, following Vrasti & Dayal’s (2017) terminology. In fact, while several studies have investigated the commons’ role in promoting urban justice, explorations of whether access to the commons itself is just have been neglected.

This master’s thesis explores what constitutes material and immaterial barriers to accessing Urban Commons to understand whether these initiatives can work, policy-wise, as a driver of social inclusion. 29 Urban Commons in Amsterdam were selected as a case study. A quantitative geo-spatial analysis was conducted to evaluate the material accessibility to each initiative. In parallel, commoners were surveyed about their perception of immaterial barriers and benefits of commoning. Finally, a representative of the municipality of Amsterdam was interviewed to assess the potential challenges and benefits of policies involving Urban Commons.

Concurring with Park et al. (2020), the case study findings suggest commons could indeed promote social inclusion. Moreover, it was also found that the excluded could face, in addition to the initially proposed material and immaterial walls, an ecosystem barrier to access commons. Yet this could be addressed from a policy standpoint with the development of a commons ecosystem that is capable of scaling the benefits of commoning across an entire city.

The results have academic and societal relevance. This study provides a new theoretical framework to research the factors influencing access to commons and also contributes to literature with a unique city-wide case study. It can also function as a reference for policy-makers who wish to learn about the commons landscape in Amsterdam and who interested in understanding the factors that contribute to participation in a commons.

In the Netherlands, a substantial burden of morbidity and mortality persists for cardiovascular diseases in women. Despite this, the reduction of cardiovascular diseases in women has plateaued. This is against the backdrop of an ageing population and the prevalence of sedentary and unhealthy lifestyles.
This research presents a novel model to explore the problem space. A multi-disciplined microsimulation model is presented that incorporates theories and data aggregated from individual health data, population studies, social network studies, and behaviour studies. To our knowledge, it is the first model of its kind. We used the city of The Hague as our case study, as we were able to use a treasure trove of individual health data to inform the model, and thus inform the answer to the research question. The model was developed to answer the research question:
How can behavioural interventions decrease the healthcare burden of cardiovascular diseases among women in The Hague?

Our methodology consisted of multiple phases. First, we conducted a literature study to identify
cardiovascular risk factors and entry points for interventions. Second, we developed health data models to be integrated into the microsimulation model. Third, we designed and implemented a microsimulation model and explored a plausible future cardiovascular health burden. Fourth, we looked at the impact of certain interventions applied to the entry points. The chosen interventions are based on the hypothesis that was derived from the literature read during the first phase. The hypothesis was as follows:

How can recurring interventions targeting diet, exercise or smoking behaviours decrease the healthcare burden of cardiovascular diseases among women in The Hague?

During the literature study we conducted, we made multiple findings. First, current studies seem to omit relevant risk factors for women, such as pregnancy complications. So far, studies primarily focus on men, even though that cardiovascular diseases are the leading cause of morbidity and mortality for women in the world. Second, studies that examine risk factors oversimplify the nature of the problem and neglect cultural, social and even biological context. The problem is complex and multi-faceted. Thus, it warrants a fitting approach, such as the one presented in this research. Third, there is too little evidence on the efficacy of interventions targeting behaviours that lead to an increased risk of cardiovascular diseases.
During the development of the data models, we found that the cardiovascular risk of a young female is significantly higher if she has multiple risk factors – something that is currently not mentioned in the cardiovascular guidelines. We also found that smoking is the most dominant modifiable risk factor. However, since, in the model we developed, exercise and diet behaviour affect a woman’s blood pressure, total cholesterol and blood sugar, indirectly, BMI may be just as, if not more, important. Our data model and our literature study thus confirm that these are important entry points that need to be exploited by interventions.
The simulation runs made the staggering revelation that, unless we do something about it, the future for women with regard to CVD looks bleak. The health issue is obstinate, and much of the prevention potential seems to be lost. The effects of many temperate interventions, such as education in schools, are negated, due to the oversaturation of unhealthy lifestyle behaviours. We also found that the effect of repeating interventions is more sustainable and long-term. However, our experiments implied that true progress can be made if extreme interventions are introduced repeatedly. Due to the intensity, it is unlikely the population of The Hague and additional stakeholders would approve of these interventions. We nuance the findings by the fact that the model is a simplified representation of the real world.
Choices were made during the design, and certain elements of human behaviour and of cardiovascular pathophysiology were omitted from the model. In some aspects, there simply was not enough data, such as on the effect of policies on a woman, but also how a woman is exactly influenced by her network and by external influences. These were some of the unknowns that could be addressed in future research.
This research concludes that there is an urgent need to introduce interventions that realise a sustainable, lasting change in the behaviours of women in The Hague. Three potential entry points are food intake, exercise, and smoking. Promoting healthier lifestyles is however only possible if we also address the social and cultural context. This model shows it is less effective to just change the behaviours of one woman, as social pressures may persuade her to fall back to her previous behaviours. We can set up women for success by involving her social network and as such decrease the barrier for her to permanently adopt a healthier lifestyle.

The absence of medicines to cure COVID-19 calls for preventive strategies, including mask-wearing. Despite its protection against exposure to coronavirus, not everyone chooses to wear a mask. Some studies addressed mask-wearing behaviour from the standpoint of behavioural economics, one being the effect of herding behaviour. This occurs when people base their decision on the decisions of others. A literature review shows that herding can play a role, yet it has only been empirically studied up to a correlational relationship and not a causal relationship. This study focuses on quantifying the effect of factors that influence mask-wearing, emphasising herding. This study can be used in a more realistic epidemic transmission study that involves preventive health behaviours and can also help policymakers simulate the impacts of their policy designs more accurately. The study comprises two phases: choice and agent-based modelling. A literature review is performed to identify possible factors. Four possible factors are identified: Health Belief Model (HBM), herding-related, situational cues, and demographics. After collecting 151 questionnaire respondents within the Netherlands, a Latent Class Cluster Analysis identifies two clusters representing health beliefs. Class 1 are people who are more risk-averse towards COVID-19 and believe more in mask-wearing efficacy. Class 2 is the opposite. The choice modelling confirms a statistically significant effect of herding, only within friends and/or family and the random people. To explore the macro-level population dynamics, the interdependent behaviour between people is considered. An agent-based model (ABM) has been formalised, implemented, verified, and validated. The main insight is that the herding effect is stronger when the majority is not wearing masks than when the majority is wearing masks. In other words, there is a tendency towards no-mask-wearing, instead of the opposite. These discoveries unveils a new insight on how herding affects mask-wearing using an under-explored way of combining static and dynamic research methods. This study has several limitations. First, the risk of low-quality responses from online survey is uncertain. Second, care should be taken in generalising the result to the Netherlands population. Third, the literature review may miss important factors that were undiscovered in the previous literature up to April 2021. Fourth, this study generalises the factors in a broad categorisation. Finally, the ABM employs simplified input values. Future studies may also incorporate interviews, a more representative sampling method, and a more fine-grained specification of factors. Finally, five recommendations are derived for the policy-making process. First, this study recommends policy-makers maintain clarity in communicating mask-wearing policy. Second, enforcement of mandatory policy is recommended, especially in outdoor spaces. Third, mask-wearing can be encouraged through social campaigns, if necessary. Such campaigns may contain figures that people can closely relate to. Another alternative is to increase the importance of policy by putting signs in more prominent places and informing people about the enforcement. Fourth, the modellers in the policy-making domain could look at incorporating herding to such research and enrich its realism. Lastly, this study can also be utilised for other policy-making processes outside the mask-wearing context and/or outside the COVID-19 context.

With increasing urbanization it has become increasingly important to focus on reducing emissions at a residential level. Decisions of households to adopt emissions reducing technologies are influenced not just by economic factors, but by the type of social networks they are embedded in. There is however little insight into the relationship between underlying networks and effectiveness of policy interventions. This thesis builds a Data-Driven Agent-based Model grounded in Theory of Planned Behavior, initialised with synthetic household population for a case-study of Albany County, (New York, USA). It uses network modelling to study how social network structures influence adoption rates of different communities. Results show that flat tax-credit schemes can result in poor adoption rates in segregated networks, with performance worsening if the network size is small. Seeding policies and information agents, do not necessarily result in better adoption rates, highlighting the importance of trusted information sources than mass communicators. The resulting understanding of social networks’ influence over adoption of energy-efficient technologies can assist policy-makers in designing energy policy interventions that improve access of clean energy technologies for all socioeconomic groups.

The Urban Heat Island effect increases the air temperature in cities compared to rural areas because cities have a lot more hardened surfaces than rural areas. As the amount of people living in cities increases and the global air temperatures rise, these negative effects will increase and mitigation action has to be taken. This research investigates how technical, household and institutional characteristics influence the adoption of Urban Heat Island mitigation solutions in existing neighbourhoods in the Netherlands. Through a desk study, expert interviews and agent-based model the effect of these characteristic on the adoption of green roofs, green façades, green gardens and cool roofs by households is researched. The results show that several characteristics found in literature do not have a significant effect on the fraction of adopted solutions and that there is no significant difference between the four investigated Local Climate Zones. It is concluded that only the energy reduction effect of a solution has a significant influence, that households with a higher income and households that own their dwelling adopt more mitigation solutions, that households in owners’ association adopt less solutions and that introducing or increasing the subsidy for green roofs or cool roofs increases the adoption of these solutions but not the average air temperature. Furthermore, the results show that households will mostly adopt green roofs. The outcomes of this research can be used by policy makers to differentiate policies between neighbourhoods and the model itself can be adapted to use it for other cities or neighbourhoods.

Many regions around the world are facing water shortage, low water quality, unsustainable overuse or other problems that may even cause conflict among different actors. These water resources are typical examples of common-pool resources. Leaders seem to play a crucial role in the emergence of community-based management of resources and overcoming the collective action problem. The main purpose of this study is to find the mechanism behind the emergence of leaders in the process of starting collective action.
I synthesized leadership studies from different domains and created Leadership for Community Development (LCD) theory. Based on LCD, leadership emerges from influencing interactions that are done to share a vision and make other community members dedicated to it. In this process, leaders gather the requirements of collective action, like support or political capital. Central to this idea is the innovation process, which has four phases of idea generation, idea elaboration, idea promotion, and idea adoption. The idea in the innovation process is the same as the vision.
According to this theory, first, there might be problematizing leaders who challenge the current state and give attention to a problem through influencing interactions. Dissatisfaction with the current state can lead to idea generation. In the idea elaboration phase, the idea creator will try to elaborate and gather support for the idea among his or her close connections. If this is successful and enough support is received, dedicated actors will start promoting the idea by influencing others. In the idea promotion phase, enabling leadership emerges when actors promote their own vision and echoing leadership emerges when convinced actors advocate the vision of their influencers. Enabling leadership and echoing leadership form up effective leadership, which is the indispensable influencing effort of actors for reaching the next phase. Idea adoption or implementation, which is in the domain of management, starts when requirements such as political and intellectual capitals are enough. This theory is further supported by a case study and interview.
I created an agent-based model based on the LCD theory. The model was a successful proof of concept for the LCD theory and how the identified types of leadership emerge through the process of initiating collective action. I used the model to identify the most significant factors on the role of leaders and the initiation of collective action. The social network proved to be the most important factor.
Based on these findings, I emphasized on the importance of focusing on networks and building connections in the communities. Moreover, I have suggested using these findings to diagnose the lack of collective action in communities and to use this diagnosis in the process of facilitating collective action in communities. I proposed many recommendations for future steps in this study. The top priority recommendations are a call for case studies to be done to further validate the LCD theory and to perform group experiments to increase understanding of the role of the social network in collective action problems.