With climate change increasing the frequency and severity of heat waves in the Netherlands, the risk of buildings overheating poses a critical challenge to occupant health, energy efficiency, and sustainability goals. Despite regulatory progress on reducing energy-related emissions, current renovation practices often overlook overheating issues.
This study addresses this gap by integrating heat hazard loss as cost into a probabilistic cost-benefit analysis to assess the long-term benefits of improving resilience. The method can assist in decision-making when retrofitting by informing about the financial feasibility of mitigation, including the impact of recurring extreme events.
In a case study, renovation alternatives were tested on a housing unit in Rotterdam. The performance was evaluated considering energy efficiency, heat resilience, and carbon footprint. Using the developed framework, the distribution of costs and cost recovery under climate uncertainty were investigated.
The findings show that while passive cooling measures can significantly reduce overheating, their cost recovery is limited under current climate conditions. Still, the financial analysis shows that resilience improvements prevent operational cost from overshooting in the worst-case scenarios. Finally, integrating heating with cooling in a cost-benefit analysis can disclose counteracting measures that reduce the net benefit.
The study demonstrates that further investigation into cost-effective climate adaption is crucial to building future-proof environments.

For a long time, timber has taken the backseat to steel and concrete for largescale structures, but due to sustainability interests many developments have been made to improve its less desirable qualities. With the introduction of engineered wood products, large timber sections required for fire resistant design became economical and the timber structural behavior became more reliable. However, there are still many challenges when it comes to the seismic design of tall timber structures. Current modelling strategies are time-consuming to implement, provide inconsistent results, and do not account for the passive parameters which impact the seismic behavior of the structure throughout its lifetime. Since timber is a natural material, it is subject to varying levels of moisture content which impacts its stiffness. Furthermore, given the lightweightedness of timber structures (compared to concrete or steel alternatives), any changes to the mass distribution of the structure drastically changes its dynamic response.
This research project develops a computational workflow for the seismic analysis of tall timber structures which integrates the seismic analysis model seamlessly into the main design workflow, simplifies the process for setting the parameters in a semi component-level model for seismic analysis, includes a lifetime analysis option which considers the variables which impact the structural performance of the structure over time, and provides the engineer with component-level data over time. Python class objects are used to develop this computational workflow inside of the Grasshopper environment for Rhino, using the OpenSeesPy library for analysis. It follows the analysis standards provided by the (recent drafts of the) Eurocodes and supporting research papers. It has been developed to align with the most prominent tall timber construction types, as defined through the literature review. The analysis script utilizes the modelling strategy put forth by Rinaldi et al. (2021) to determine the effective stiffness of a cross-laminated timber wall, and its implementation was validated with a comparative analysis to the results of that research. The implementation of the full workflow and its impact on the design process is demonstrated through a case study, with results confirming the importance of including lifetime variables for analysis. This research increases the timeframe of analysis that the engineer can perform on tall timber structures such that the initial structural design can be informed by future predicted events, allowing for more resistant designs.

The growing complexity of modern façade systems and the increasing use of combustible materials highlight a pressing need to evaluate not only fire resistance but also fire resilience in façade design. This study addresses critical gaps in façade fire resilience assessment, particularly the absence of methodologies that incorporate both damage progression and post-fire recovery potential. To fill this gap, the research formulates a central question: How can the fire resilience of façade systems be assessed to evaluate their ability to maintain structural integrity and recover functionality after fire exposure?
A two-phase methodology was adopted. First, a quantitative damage assessment was performed using a one-dimensional heat transfer simulation. This model, governed by the standard fire and implemented via the finite difference method, simulates temperature evolution in multi-layered façade assemblies. Damage states were classified based on critical temperature thresholds, enabling the computation of vulnerability scores over different fire durations. This method was selected due to its computational efficiency and its solid foundation in fire engineering literature, making it well-suited for early-stage design comparisons. In the second phase, resilience was evaluated through a qualitative expert survey focusing on repairability and recoverability, as the lack of empirical post-fire data necessitated expert-based evaluation. Experts assessed post-fire conditions of façade materials and components in terms of ease of repair, repair duration, cost, and likelihood of restoring performance.
The integration of these two methods provides a holistic framework for evaluating façade fire resilience by linking thermal vulnerability with practical recovery insights. The framework is further developing through a preparation phase, which also serves as its validation by comparison with existing research results. This study contributes a novel perspective to façade design, enabling stakeholders to identify fire-resilient systems that balance thermal performance, structural robustness, and post-fire recoverability.

This thesis focuses on using MARL as a decision tool for post-earthquake repair scheduling of interdependent infrastructure. MARL is a multi-agent ML paradigm which combines traditional ML research and game-theoretical approaches. Given the relative increase in natural disaster frequency and the lack of available post-disaster tools such tools are crucial in increasing the climate resilience of cities. Given the stochastic nature of earthquake events and subsequent losses, MARL can be helpful in navigating this uncertainty and finding preferable joint policies.The methodology involves multi-scenario-based seismic hazard assessment, stochastic fragility modelling and prediction of several direct and indirect losses to aggregate them into a holistic community resilience metric. This is then used to compute the instantaneous and cumulative recovery resilience loss values. The tested approach uses two custom built test-beds of 4 and 30 components, and MARL is compared against baseline solvers, including random and importance-based policies. Value Decomposition Network with Parameter Sharing (𝑉𝐷𝑁 − 𝑃𝑆), Q-Learning with Mixer Network and Parameter Sharing (𝑄𝑀𝐼𝑋 − 𝑃𝑆), Deep Centralised Multi-Agent Actor Critic (𝐷𝐶𝑀𝐴𝐶) are the algorithms tested. 𝑉𝐷𝑁 and 𝑄𝑀𝐼𝑋 are shown to perform similarly to each other and sub-optimally relative to 𝐷𝐶𝑀𝐴𝐶. 𝐷𝐶𝑀𝐴𝐶 is shown to match importance-based policies when considering full recovery, but convincingly outperforms all other 𝐷𝑅𝐿 methods and importance-based policies when considering partial recovery. This shows that 𝐷𝐶𝑀𝐴𝐶 and 𝐷𝑅𝐿 more generally is effective at swift early recovery by prioritising components that contribute most to community functionality. ii

Disasters, both natural and man-made, displace millions of people worldwide every year, necessitating an urgent need for shelter that should not only be safe and habitable but also adaptable to the diverse needs of displaced communities.

The design and deployment of disaster relief shelters face numerous challenges, including rapid deployment needs, environmental and cultural adaptability, sustainability, and the psychological well-being of the occupants. Traditional approaches often result in shelters that are slow to deploy, inadequately adapted to local conditions, or environmentally unsustainable. Furthermore, they frequently overlook the potential of involving affected communities in the shelter design process, missing opportunities for empowerment and better alignment with user needs.

Hence, why this thesis aimed to create an environment for people to design and manufacture their own customizable shelters with local products and culture in mind and without the need for expert intervention. Central to this approach is the design of a modular lightweight structure made with Plywood able to be set up by just two individuals without requiring large machinery. A structural analysis is conducted using the plugin Karamba 3D in Grasshopper, while verification is done through custom Python scripts within the same environment adhering to the Eurocode EN-1995.

To enhance user autonomy in shelter design, this thesis also explored the potential computational design offers as an approach to the optimization of shelter for specific environmental and contextual conditions as well as user requirements. Such as the ability to with a parametric model of the structure to iterate between numerous different options quite quickly. Giving the user the freedom to make it fit with their wishes without compromising structural integrity. In combination with digital fabrication technologies such as CNC-routing that enable the rapid production of each custom component as well as the addition to make use of the concept of Makerspaces, or similar environments where these tools like these are made available to anyone it can further democratize shelter design and production.

To further empower communities an online environment is developed to bring all of this together. Build using Viktor in combination with Grasshopper and Rhino the platform allows users to customize their shelter in both layout and materials and the rest is handled by the application, the structural analysis, optimization and generation of a digital 3D model. Which is then translated into the necessary fabrication files and information they need to set up their shelter using local materials and production. Fostering a sense of ownership while ensuring sustainability, adaptability and structural integrity.

The escalating challenges caused by the climate change, notably floods and heatwaves, highlights the urgent need for robust resilience strategies in infrastructure and urban ecosystems. this research identifies critical gaps in existing methodologies and tools for assessing resilience, particularly during extreme events. Key issues include the absence of specialized tool for facade resilience quantification, limited multi-hazard assessment methodologies and a scarcity of quantitative methods in existing literature. In order to fill these gaps, this study formulates a research question: How can we identify the optimal facade combination that is resilient against heatwaves and floods?

A quantitative approach is employed, integrating an interdisciplinary perspective that encompasses structural design, facade design, climate design and hazard engineering. The methodology involves an extensive literature review, computational simulations, machine learning models, sensitivity analysis and resilience matrix for quantification of flood and heatwaves resilient facade system.

This study fills crucial gaps by offering a framework to assess facade resilience against these hazards. It identifies influential facade parameters and primary hazard stressors, crucial for informed decision-making by designers and engineers. The study culminates in a resilience quantification for multi-hazard assessment, empowering stakeholders to design resilient facade systems tailored to specific environmental contexts. The research findings contribute to advancing knowledge in building facade resilience, offering practical guidance for enhancing resilience in the face of evolving environmental challenges.

In response to global climate change and the increasing frequency of extreme natural hazards, an early intervention flood risk assessment methodology has been developed to assess damage at the building component level. This approach allows for the precise identification of vulnerable structural components and localized redesigns, leading to more cost-effective and safer structural solutions. The focus of this paper is on quantifying flood damage to components and visualizing the results, with two main objectives: 1) quantifying the damage and 2) interactive visualization.
Hydrodynamic simulations of compound floods under future climate scenarios are performed to apply the quantitative results at the micro level. Using future climate scenarios obtained by perturbing atmospheric data with a regional climate model, the top 24 hours of flood-driven data are selected to create inundation maps. Vulnerability curves for each material are plotted, taking into account the sensitivity of the component materials to water. Based on the water depth at each point, the failure probability is determined. This method of quantifying component vulnerability provides new insights into micro-level flood damage.
Finally, an integrated BIM-GIS model is constructed, and the damage level and distribution are displayed on the ArcGIS Pro platform. This allows different stakeholders to intuitively obtain damage level information. Users can customize their view, for example, by focusing solely on the damage to first-floor exterior windows or by examining the damage levels of components and buildings under different intensity flood ratings.

Curtain-wall systems have become increasingly common in present-day architecture.
They can be produced with high-efficiency qualities selected by the architect or façade
engineer, the most essential of which are excellent strength-to-weight ratio, functionality
requirements, component material recyclability, transparency, and comprehensive
aesthetic attributes.(Baniotopoulos et al., 2016) Over the last decade, much research has
been conducted to produce performance-based earthquake resilient structures and
façades. This research aims to explore the integration of timber and aluminium suspended
façade systems within environments characterized by these extreme conditions. On
the first part of the research thesis, the focus will be on developing a comprehensive
understanding of the performance of this façade system under wind, earthquake forces and
implementing automation techniques to streamline the calculations by creating a smart
grid in Grassshopper and Python. Additionally, once structural integrity has been met, an
optimal structural design of the bracket using steel and glass as a material is presented by
using advanced finite-element analysis schemes and structural design criteria.

This master thesis rigorously explores the integration of a genetic algorithm-based workflow in the design and optimization of a passive fixed shading system utilizing ETFE cushion panels, with the objective of enhancing the thermal resilience of an existing building envelope. The case study focuses on a mid-rise office building located in the port of Athens, Greece. The central research question addressed is: "How can a genetic algorithm-based workflow be effectively employed in the multi-objective optimization of a shading system to improve the energy efficiency of an existing building envelope?"

To answer this question, the research investigates four interconnected domains: ETFE double skin structures, resilience quantification, multi-criteria decision-making approaches with genetic algorithms, and the analysis of the case study building facade system. The study centers on the preliminary design phase of the shading system, highlighting its potential as a retrofit solution for existing infrastructures challenged by rising temperatures.

The outcomes of this research include the development of a versatile workflow for evaluating the energy performance of existing buildings, facilitating interdisciplinary feedback within a design team, and applying multi-objective optimization to design problems. This work provides a comprehensive framework for integrating advanced computational methods in architectural design, thereby contributing to the improvement of building energy efficiency and thermal resilience.

The thesis focuses on creating a solution aimed at reducing suffering in earthquake prone regions. The research done resulted in the development of Embrace, a wearable communication device designed to alleviate human suffering during seismic events in seismically active regions like Zagreb. Commencing with an exploration of challenges faced by people living in these quake affected regions, the research aimed to devise a cost-effective, visually appealing solution to these issues.
Methodologies encompassed literature reviews, interviews, cause-effect analysis, and Inside out Design approach, offering crucial insights into user needs and preferences. Following an evaluation of various design concepts, Embrace emerged as the preferred solution, aligning with project requirements.
Embrace integrates LoRa technology for long-range communication, empowering individuals to request aid during earthquakes. Its design process involved modeling with Fusion 360, 3D printing, and utilizing liquid rubber for silicone shells. Sizing considerations, ergonomic enhancements with fillets, and a hierarchy of requirements guided its development.
Future research pathways should include testing Embrace's functionality, exploring diverse shapes and materials, and investigating additional features like smartwatch integration. The thesis resulted in development of Embrace as a significant contribution to wearable technology, enhancing safety and well-being during seismic events.

With the increasing number and diversity of disruptive events imposed on the built environment, it is becoming more important to identify a system's resilience. Quantifying resilience is crucial because it enables effective preparation, recovery, and adaptation to the uncertainties that lie ahead. This study focuses on the resilience of building facades, which play an integral role in a building's various functions, including environmental, structural, and operational performance. Facades contribute significantly to the total building damage, yet their resilience is not sufficiently addressed in current discourse. This research aims to bridge this research gap by addressing the question: How can the integrated resilience of a facade system to multiple hazards be identified? A methodology was developed with two objectives: 1) evaluating facade resilience, and 2) integrating this methodology into the facade design process.

The Resilience-based Facade Design Framework assesses the impact of multiple hazards on a building facade, taking into account its fragility. The framework provides a quantitative approach to decision-making regarding facades, both in the early design stage and in retrofitting. Users can input project location, building geometry, and existing facade specifications to create a facade package. This package is then assessed for resilience under different hazards, including seismic and heat hazards. The resilience performance, defined in terms of resilience loss and economic loss, is integrated into a multi-attribute decision-making tool. This tool allows users to select a facade package based on its integrated resilience performance value, or to configure a facade package based on individual enhancements to resilience attributes.

Climate change and extreme heat are critical issues which have been faced all over the world. Consequently, designers strive to monitor and assess the performance of facades by developing environmental assessments at the early design stages, since design changes do not require many resources. Rapid urban expansion in many parts of the world is leading to increased exposure to extreme natural hazards, exacerbated by climate change. It is essential to come up with strategies for mitigating the vulnerability of the built environment. The concept of thermal resilience and adaptation to climate change have gained ground and international attention in the Architecture, Engineering and Construction (AEC) industry. Resilience is a multi-facet property which defines the vulnerability of the built environment. Although the qualitative assessment of resilience value, the quantification of urban resilience is not yet representative enough and there is a lack of calculating the resilience in the built environment. However, designers are called to develop building and planning proposals with taking into consideration the thermal resilience of buildings against extreme hazards. This thesis aims to fill the gap between the qualitative and quantitative evaluation of thermal resilience in buildings by considering the operational building performance and the thermal performance of the building envelope in case of extreme heat waves. Towards this direction, the most influential parameters of thermal resilience are identified by implementing a sensitivity analysis process, in the first part. Secondly, a quantification method is presented and the thermal resilience performance for buildings in Amsterdam is calculated. Last, this thesis attempts to develop a computational workflow in order to assist designers and engineers in defining the thermal resilience index from the early design stage. Defining a less computational cost and time-consuming workflow is also a goal. Due to time limitations, the multi-facet aspect of resilience and the difficulty of quantification of its indicators, this research focuses on the ex-ante evaluation of the building envelope by identifying its vulnerability to extreme heat waves.

Due to global warming, the Netherlands is experiencing a variety of climatic changes, including temperature rise, increased solar radiation and condensation, low pressure, high humidity, wild-fires, drought, subsidence, changes in ground-water levels, an increased risk of flooding, and downbursts, thunder, wind gusts, and hail. Build-ing materials, including steel, concrete, and timber are affected directly or indirectly by these climatic events.
When it comes to resilience, increasing moisture, temperature, subsidence, and flood dam-age affect structural materials most. Investigating the impact of temperature and flood damage on construction materials was the main goal of the thesis.

For flood assessment, flood loads based on the FEMA coastal construction handbook are used to simulate flooding damages and evaluate the impact on structures. Hand calculations are used to calculate the deflection. Damage evaluation involves calculations from reference cases and utilizes databases such as Hazus, the REDi rating system, and FEMA to determine recovery and repair times. The script for the assessment tool incorporates these calculations, formulas, and numbers. Eventually resulting in a graph based on the dimension of the column and the material, the deflection, damage, recovery time and repair time is returned. The current flood assessment is limited to deflection in terms of structural assessment, but it can easily be expanded to contain stress calculations or other likewise formulas.

Regarding the temperature impact, an empirical concrete corrosion formula calculates mass loss, while the Arrhenius equation assesses the deterioration of wood and steel. A specific formula for concrete corrosion considering the concrete layer is required. Using Faraday's equation, corrosion ratios or material degradation ratios can be converted into mm/year, determining the new cross section size and assessing its impact on structural deflection by anticipating the mass loss. This loss is also directly linked to the structure's performance in a flood, effectively integrating both investigated events.
Both flood assessment and temperature effect approaches are translated into a Python script using packages like open-meteo for climate data, klimaateffectatlas for flood depths, and ifcopenshell for data extraction from IFC models.

Although relevant information regarding the curtain walls structural damage state is available, hardly any data referring to the seismic loading effect on the overall façade performance is found in the literature. The present research attempts to assess the unitised curtain walls seismic performance by identifying the occurring damage mechanisms based on full-scale testing and finite element modelling.
The study initiates with a state-of-the-art discussing in detail the relevant research areas. Additionally, an introduction to the curtain wall numerical modelling field is provided. This literature review originates both from full-scale experimental testing and findings of academically developed finite element models. The case study of an experimental procedure is also described accompanied by the curtain wall response to the inter-storey drift implementation.
The modelling approach is introduced by presenting the mechanisms and the recreated curtain wall behaviour. Additionally, the process of identifying the properties of the curtain wall the boundary and loading conditions is displayed. The various modelling phases, the initial numerical development, its improvement through the calibration with the experimental results and the calibrated version, are also included.
The accomplishment of the first global curtain wall numerical model using DIANA FEA is a main research objective. The novelty consists in the exploration of the software possibilities and limitations which, although widely used for numerous applications, it hasn’t been utilised for façade numerical modelling. In general, the numerical representation of façade systems aims to provide a better insight of the curtain wall behaviour that will be eventually accurate to the extent that experimental tests won’t be needed for their validation.
Another interesting area is the correlation of the numerical behaviour to the experimental results measured on the curtain wall mock-ups while undergoing seismic loading. The model calibration intends for a realistic representation of the actual performance as recorded during the full-scale testing. Additionally, the contribution of structural silicone sealants in the system post-earthquake behaviour through the comparative performance of façade samples with dry gasket and systems with structural silicone is assessed. This evaluation aims to reinforce the knowledge regarding the strengths and weaknesses of wet and dry configurations and to indicate their appropriate application.
The research attempts to contribute to the seismic risk assessment of unitised curtain walls by identifying the governing failure mechanisms. This evaluation is performed with regards to the silicone sealant, simulating both dry and wet configurations. Thus, a sensitivity analysis varying over the structural silicone bite is developed with respect to the façade ultimate failure. The curtain wall overall response is addressed by evaluating several parameters (displacements, distortion, rotation and maximum stress per component). Moreover, the detection of the largest stress values occurring per element is used for the utilisation factors determination. This occurs by comparing the maximum stresses with the respective design values. The different outcomes provide the constructive context for further research of the façade response under seismic action. The study finalises with conclusions, considerations as well as suggestions for further research. Various challenges encountered are also introduced, aspiring to provide helpful information for future modellers.

Seismic events have shown the hazardous and expensive consequences resulting from seismic damage of non-structural elements. For this reason, the concern regarding the seismic performance of glazed curtain walls has acquired more relevance in the building industry; however, there is still a gap of information in the literature about this topic. To contribute with a broader panorama about the seismic performance of CW, this thesis project is focused on the seismic of the connections within a curtain wall.
This thesis intends to evaluate the performance of the connections that contribute to the seismic response of a glazed curtain wall with finite element models and experimental tests. To achieve this objective, several important points were taken into account. First, a literature study to understand what is a CW, and which are the components that may have influence in seismic design. Second, the two case-studies considered in this research are presented; in this section information about the specimens tested and types of tests performed is provided. Third, elaborate finite element models of the connections corresponding to each case study describing the criteria used. Finally, a comparison between the experimental and numerical results is elaborated to determine if the modelling approach is correct.
The experimental tests were carried out with the collaboration of Permasteelisa Group, and the numerical models were elaborated with DIANA FEA software. Five connections were analysed in this research: mullion to mullion, transom to starter sill, top aluminium bracket and hook, starter sill- bottom steel bracket, and silicone by a non-linear analysis with incremental displacements. At the end of this analysis it was observed a good agreement in the behaviour of the frame to frame connections with a minimal over estimation of the stiffness of certain frame to frame connections. Regarding the connections involving brackets, it was observed that the behaviour in the in-plane horizontal direction can be affected by the rotation of this elements because bolted connections shall be modelled as rotational springs. Finally about silicone it was observed that there exists a good match between the experimental results and the numerical models.
In conclusion, the modelling procedure was validated with experimental tests with relatively optimal results. Nonetheless, there are still limitations in the development of this topic that will be described in the recommendations but much more openness is expected in the future in terms of research on this topic.