neering (SE). Nowadays, this approach is more and more instructed by clients in the Netherlands. The switch to Systems Engineering was necessary because of the development of integrated contracts (UAV-GC; Uniform Administrative Conditions for Integrated Contracts) such as Design-Build-Finance-Maintain (DBFM) and Design & Construct (D&C). Before the introduction of integrated contracts, mainly RAW contracts (Rationalization and automation Soil, Water and Road Construction) were used in the Netherlands for public procurement in infrastructure projects. In RAW contracts, the to be built system is described in detail and the segregation of responsibilities between client and contractor is distinctly defined. In integrated contracts, this distinctly defined segregation of responsibilities is missing. As a result of the integrated contracts, the projects became more complex and multidisciplinary, which asked for a more structured approach (Emes et al., 2012). Another difficulty of integrated contracts is the communication between client and contractor because more information has to be transferred. An important element of SE are the verification and validation processes. This validation process is considered complicated in the civil engineering industry. Four subproblems are determined by means of literature and practical knowledge. First, the interaction between client and contractor. Findings of a questionnaire performed by the CROW (2017) about the relationship between client and contractor are:56.9% of the contractors’ employees do not feel equally treated by the client, 43.6% of the clients’ employees and 69.7% of the contractors’ employees agree on the statement that the other party is mainly defensive instead of cooperative, another issue during the interaction between client and contractor is trust. 23.3% of the clients’ employees and 17.7% of the contractors’ employees say that the other party cannot be trusted, 73.6% of the clients’ employees and 73.5% of the contractors’ employees disagree on the fact that the other party puts the common interests of the project above their own interests. The second subproblem is the confusion between verification and validation. Verification is the process of determining if the system meets the specified requirements (Alsem et al., 2013). Nevertheless, the purpose of the validation process according to ISO (2015) is "to provide objective evidence that the system, when in use, fulfils its business or mission objectives and stakeholder requirements, achieving its intended use in its intended operational environment" (ISO, 2015, p. 74). The third subproblem is executing sufficient validation. The difficulty is to represent the client and stakeholders needs in requirements. Therefore, the validation is often conducted last-minute in the construction phase of the project. The fourth subproblem is that the effects of the use of 3D visualisation during design validation on project performances are unknown. These problems result in the following research objective and question. The aim of this research is to gain insight in the effects of 3D visualisation during the design validation on the project performances, namely time, costs and quality. What are possible effects of 3D visualisation on design validation within the civil engineering sector in the Netherlands? The methodology for this research consists of three phases: (1) context, which includes literature and project evaluations, (2) experiment, which contains baseline and follow-up measurements and (3) the results and conclusion. Phase two, experiment, is a gaming simulation called the ontwikkelstraat. In this research, the following definition is used for gaming simulation: "a special type of model that uses gaming techniques to model and simulate a system. A gaming simulation is an operating model of a real-life system in which actors in roles partially recreate the behaviour of the system (Meijer, 2009)". The Ontwikkelstraat is a two-day case imitating a project from tender till exploitation and includes design, construction and maintenance of a hydrogen factory. During this gaming simulation, three types of measurements are conducted: questionnaires, recordings of the interaction between client and contractor, and observations. According to the literature, sufficient design validation has to fulfil several conditions. The aim is to acquire proof that the system in its ability to achieve its intended use (ISO, 2015). Rijkswaterstaat (2017) prescribes three conditions the design validation should meet, namely design validation is an integral element of the design process, confirmation by client and stakeholders, and determine the validation process in cooperation with the client. There are multiple ways of conducting design validation. Several design activities are of importance for design validation. During the system design phase, these activities are analysing contract documents, as well as document functionalities, requirements and systems. In the preliminary design phase, these activities are based on the variants and validation of the design products. It is concluded from the three cases studied that alignment of the design products with client and stakeholders is a key validation step in all cases. Bryde et al. (2014), Sebastian and Van Berlo (2011), and Azhar (2012) described the capabilities of 3D visualisation. Three-dimensional visualisation can be static or dynamic. With a static image of the 3D model of the design, the communication and coordination between actors and disciplines are more detailed. By decomposition in subsystems and objects, the technical details of the design can be sufficiently discussed during the validation sessions with the client and stakeholders. Another capability of the 3D visualisation is expectation management between contractor, client and stakeholders. 3D visualisation can also be used for dynamic images for moving systems, such as locks and movable bridges, which can be used for showing the functionalities of the design. Dynamic images can confirm that the design meets the intended functionalities and use of the system that is going to be built. Currently, 3D visualisation is used within the civil engineering sector in the Netherlands is by means of BIM. Within the civil engineering sector in the Netherlands companies deviate in the BIM maturity level, as well as the multiple subsidiaries within the contractor firm VolkerWessels. According to the BIM wedge that is developed by Bew and Richards (2008), level 1 of the BIM maturity is implemented. Therefore, the use of 3D visualisation is implemented in all integral projects within the infrastructure branch of VolkerWessels. The 3D models are used for clash detection, reinforcement in concrete, immediate vicinity and quantities. Conclusion According the results of the gaming simulation, visualisation does not have an effect on the project performances time, costs and quality. A possible explanation that no effect of visualisation on the project performances has been found is that the physical model of the hydrogen factory in the ontwikkelstraat was only used during one of the follow-up measurements. During the other two follow-up measurement, the physical model was not used by the participants. The follow-up measurement where the physical model was used, it was used by one participant, who built the model. However, the participant did not communicate his findings from the physical model to the other project team members. Therefore, there are not enough results to conclude that there are no effects of visualised validation on the project performances. From observations during the gaming simulation, it can be concluded that not the availability of the 3D model, but the standard practice of project teams is the issue. This research aimed to fill the theoretical gap on the effects of 3D visualisation on design validation. Although this aim is achieved, every research has to make compromises to stay within scope. The main limitations are presented in the itemisation below. • Lack of proper literature regarding the conditions for sufficient design validation; • Small sample size of the gaming simulation, which makes it harder to generalise the findings; • Time constraints during the gaming simulation, the participants are under a lot of time pressure during particularly the design phases. Therefore it is possible they overlooked the physical scale model. Soms suggestions for further research are: • It is found that not the availability of the 3D visualisation is the problem, but the standard practice of project teams play a role. Therefore, research on the problems of implementation of 3D models during design validation and how to solve these problems would b relevant for the whole construction industry; • During the project evaluations, it has been found that the way of handling changes in the contract after procurement is challenging. It turns out that validation of the design is often obstructed because the results of the validation process can result in uncertainties for all actors in a construction project. Research on the politics behind the changes in construction projects is relevant, because of the uncertainties these politics bring in the development of projects and the relationship between all actors that are involved; • Lastly, further research on the interaction between client and contractor is needed. Research on the development of achievable strategies to manage the counterbalance between collaboration and competition between client and contractor would be significant. Recommendations for practice Based on the literature and project evaluations, a proposed approach, called visualised validation approach (VVA) is developed. The VVA is a combination of two different project management methodologies, which are the V-model and the scrum. During the System design phase, three activities are essential: determining V&V management plan, requirement validation, and interaction with the client about the intended use of the system. The preliminary design phase is an iterative process, with scrum design sprints and validation sessions with the client and stakeholders. The biggest challenge in the construction industry is the implementation of the visualised validation approach. According to an internal investigation, the accessibility of the process and in particular the 3D mod- els have impact on the implementation of the VVA. Several employees indicated that they are reserved to use new approaches because of the lack of skills or manpower.

Serious Games can be used for many purposes, including studying complex, socio-technical systems. They are claimed to provide new opportunities by bringing different knowledge and fields of expertise to the table. Combined with simulations that allow for observation of the evolving infrastructure under deeply uncertain conditions, they have the potential to be an effective research tool. An example of such a serious game is Infrarium - an adaptive cyber-physical game that addresses the challenge of collective decision-making toward emission neutrality in the energy transition process within the port. The enormous space of paths that players could follow and the complexity of interactions available raise the question of whether it is possible to create such an intervention method that would allow for steering the gameflow. This research addresses this question by introducing the concept of a Network of Puzzles based on which the Infrarium model is built. After concept evolution was done while searching for a suitable tool, the System Modelling Language (SysML) was chosen. The game was successfully represented in the conceptual model that captures the system's complexity sufficiently enough to provide the coherent structure of the game within which the clarity and traceability of connections provide a design space for future development as a tool for shaping the game flow. The results are presented in the form of SysML diagrams followed by a discussion about SysML as a supporting tool in model-driven game design, within which the possibility of further vertical elaboration with requirements and limitations is justified. We have proven that further development of the game elements should not jeopardize the existing functional level of the model. The SysML model in the presented form could be used to design an intervention method to shape players' experience during gameplay.

Although the motivational capacity of serious games is well supported in theory, few experimental studies have been conducted so far. This study contributes to this knowledge gap by using a serious game to try and increase the currently low student retention in Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs). For this, a serious game was specifically designed to influence factors that have shown to influence student retention in other MOOCs. A randomized post-test only control group experimental design was used, in which the impact of the serious game on student retention was evaluated with quantitative and qualitative data from questionnaires and the edX MOOC platform. While it was found that the serious game had a negative impact on the intrinsic motivation of students, it appeared that intrinsic motivation did not influence student retention in this MOOC, therewith explaining why no difference in student retention was observed between the control group and game group. This shows that in order to improve student retention in MOOCs with serious games, further research on factors affecting student retention in MOOCs is required first.

Due to the ecological consequences and increased resource insecurity caused by the depletion of natural resources of the incumbent linear economy, the Netherlands aims for a fully circular economy in 2050. To guide this transition from a linear to circular economy, strategies need to be made. An approach which enables actors to create these strategies is participatory backcasting. This process needs to be supported by several tools, including (social) engagement and design tools. The aim of this thesis is to explore how serious games can be used as these tools and what its effects are. By expanding the tools available for participatory backcasting, practitioners can use different tools appropriate for different settings. Using a research-through-design approach, a serious game was developed to create circular visions on business parks. Two research workshops were conducted to test the of the game on the (social) engagement and vision design. In this, the thesis introduces a framework to measure (social) engagement, consisting of the three dimensions (1) game experience, (2) learning, and (3) perceived level of influence. The results of the game experience indicate a positive effect on (social) engagement as the components related to high engagement scored relatively high and the results related to low engagement scored relatively low. Furthermore, the results of the learning dimensions showed that almost all participants have learnt about circularity. Finally, most participants indicated that they had a high degree of influence, one student indicated some degree of influence and one stating a little influence. This all showed that the participants were willing to have emotions and thoughts towards the workshop and were willing to affect the results of the final vision. This leads to the conclusion the outcome of this research would indicate that the use of a serious game can have a positive effect on (social) engagement. The games effect on the vision design was tested using two dimensions: participant satisfaction and a vision evaluation. Participant satisfaction was tested using self reporting in the postquestionnaire. The vision evaluation was conducting using the criteria set by Van den Voorn et al. (2017): (1) presence of transformative elements, and (2) presence of goals and guiding targets. The results for participant satisfaction with the developed vision range from neutral to high satisfaction. Furthermore, only one (stakeholder) participant indicated they wanted to change the vision developed during the game. However, the change was more incremental rather than disruptive. The vision analysis showed that all four visions contained transformative elements, while clear guiding goals and targets were absent. However, there were clear guiding themes in the stakeholder vision that could result in goals and targets in a follow up session. It is possible that this was due to the game used in the research.

Serious games have the potential to be used as an innovative data collection method. Combining this with Discrete Choice Modelling (DCM) could create a methodology that provides insight into the player's behaviour and allows for creating a realistic simulation. This innovative Game and Choice Based Simulation (GCBS) methodology has been conducted and evaluated using the case of the Physical Internet inspired “Freight Transportation Game”. The bidding behaviour of players is analysed using DCM. Using the insights obtained from the estimated choice model, a decision support tool for carriers is defined as a policy to optimise the system’s performance. Hereafter, the DCM is implemented into a simulation based on the gameplay, creating a realistic simulation of the PI inspired transportation market. By conducting a simulation experiment with this innovative simulation, the policy could be successfully evaluated. Considering this case of application, the GCBS methodology proved its potential. Using insights obtained during the research, a framework for GCBS has been designed explaining when and how to conduct the methodology. More research needs to be done to test the (external) validity of the decision support tool and to test and extend the methodological framework in order to increase its robustness.

The purpose of this study was to understand the effect of empathy in the project team on the outcome of the integrated design process of infrastructure projects. Despite years of experience, many infrastructure projects are still underperforming. Within the project lifecycle, the integrated design process has an important role in this. Empathy could be an important tool to improve the outcomes of the integrated design process through communication. This study represents one of the first steps towards a better understanding of this competency as an important tool for project success through the use of serious research gaming. The serious game Patchwork was designed and played for data collection. The research showed that empathy positively influences the degree to which people understand each other's information expectations and the communicative hindrance experienced due to logistical, interpersonal, or accessibility barriers. This is particularly determined by the cognitive side of empathy. In addition, this study shows that sufficient effective communication is necessary for solid project outcomes. Communication seems to serve as a prerequisite for a successful integrated design process. No demonstrable effect was found in the direct relationship of empathy and the outcome of the integrated design process. The line of empathy through communication is not reflected in the direct results. Additionally, this says that influences of empathy on the game results through other processes than communication cannot be demonstrated. However, this study cannot rule out that there was no positive effect of empathy on the outcomes of the integrated design process. Further research with larger datasets needs to conclude what the proportion is of other confounding variables being dominant in game success and how empathy relates to them. All in all, this research has taken first important steps toward recognizing the value of empathy in construction projects and it provides much reason for follow-up research into this topic.

In order to reduce CO2 emission, district heat networks and carbon-neutral heat energy production are being developed in the Netherlands. This resulted in an increasing amount of district heating systems (DHS) in the horticulture areas. A DHS in a region called the ”B3-Hoek” connects multiple producers with horticulture companies in a single-buyer market model with long term bilateral contracts. This market model has some undesirable aspects that contribute to the willingness of introducing a short term heat market model in the system. However, such a short term market is still prone to market failures, if producers have considerable market power. The aim of this research is to investigate how a short term market can be designed for a DHS in the Netherlands, how producers and large consumers behave on a short term market and how this affects the performance of the market. An interactive simulation of a short term heat market was created, based on the DHS in the B3-Hoek to investigate this. The findings in this research give a conceptual model of the new market design and it showt that in a short term heat market prices will converge to marginal cost levels when market conditions are not tight. There is a balance of market power between the producers and the horticulture companies collectively. The results of short term market will not be comparable to the case of a perfectly competitive market due to Cournot competitive behaviour, but they can still be considered desirable for both horticulture companies and producers.

In this thesis we present a computational framework, which allows simulating residential location choice. The specific application of the model focuses on representing populations under disaster risk. The aim of the tool is to enable public planning agencies to explore the synthesized households’ location choice under risk and different spatial, financial policy scenarios. The simulated urban system is represented as an agent-based model, where the households are the agents choosing between discrete options to relocate from one house to another. Their choice behavior is built upon a notion, that people make decisions based on regret. This is done with the help of Random Regret Minimization (RRM) model, allowing to capture varying levels of regret (profundity) and enabling incorporating multiple attributes of different dimensionality. Given the agent heterogeneity and the changing availability of the building stock, the choice sets are dynamic. Therefore, the traditional RRM approach would not return stable results: with every new option housing available it would have to be re-calibrated. As a solution, we propose re-interpreting the classical c{RRM} model by scaling the beta values by the choice set attribute variance. This allows to represent $eta$ as a unit-less preference weight, associated with a homogeneous population group. We apply the framework to two different scale case-studies in an earthquake-prone area in Groningen province, The Netherlands. The data used for simulation includes several public and private spatial datasets, as well as aggregate level statistical data to synthesize the properties of the households. As a showcase, we applied the simulation assuming homogeneous and equal preference weights for 7 optimization criteria. These criteria relate to static properties of the building stock and household-related dependencies to the network (job, school locations). To further exhibit model usability within public sector agencies, we also apply the model on several financial policy scenarios. The output of which is captured on both aggregate and semi-disaggregate levels, allowing for interactive exploration of the effects of the proposed scenarios. The model outcomes correspond to the expectations set prior to simulation. It showcases convergence, anticipated optimization behavior and spatial patterns, corresponding to the building stock properties of the region.

This master thesis addresses the challenge of project performance in the Civil Engineering (CE) sector, emphasizing the significance of collaboration, communication, and understanding among interdisciplinary project teams. Focusing on the role of empathy in contractor-client collaborations, the study investigates the potential impact of serious gaming on enhancing the level of empathy of CE professionals. The research uses a mixed-method pre- and post-test design, utilizing a quasi-experimental approach without a control group. The study uses the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI) and the short version of the Empathy Quotient (EQ short) questionnaire to measure the individual self-reported level of empathy before and after participants engage in the serious game 'Fouten maken Moed.' A subscale of the IRI showed a slight decrease in the level of empathy that possibly can be explained by a growth in awareness. While quantitative analysis did not reveal a significant change in overall empathy scores, qualitative findings suggest positive influences on interpersonal dynamics, openness, and talkativeness among participants, aspects that relate to the concept of empathy. Despite the limitations that arise from researching a difficult to operationalise main concept (empathy), a small sample size and having no control group. It can still be concluded that the intervention, including the serious game, created an environment that was conducive for participants to share personal information and vulnerabilities, fostering a sense of approachability and relatability. It seems like the game can, if facilitated well, function as a context-setter for Project Follow Up (PFU) or Project Start Up (PSU) meetings, enhancing collaboration between contractors and clients. Although the study acknowledges the fact that results cannot be generalised, it recommends refining empathy measurement methods and enhancing training interventions' briefing and debriefing aspects. Future research should include more extensive experiments with control groups to better isolate the impact of serious gaming on empathy levels in the CE sector, providing a more comprehensive understanding of the game's potential contributions to collaboration and project performance through empathy