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S.C. van der Spek
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1
The development of information technologies and the advent of extensive digital data since the 21st century have enabled more profound explorations and interpretations of the relationship between humans and the urban environment. This study systematically reviews the application of emerging data-driven methods in measuring human-environment interaction in urban spaces. The synthesis of 242 studies reveals a diversified application landscape of data-driven methods, employing street view imagery data, social media data, positioning data, physiological data, and video data, each carrying distinct information and addressing various research inquiries. We also review the new insights generated by their application, which offered evidence for analyzing and evaluating a wide range of established frameworks and classic theories concerning human perceptual, cognitive, emotional, and behavioral aspects in urban spaces. Based on these findings, we describe the trends, advancements, and limitations of this rising research field, and make recommendations for future researchers adopting data-driven methods to understand relationships between humans and environments in urban spaces.
...
The development of information technologies and the advent of extensive digital data since the 21st century have enabled more profound explorations and interpretations of the relationship between humans and the urban environment. This study systematically reviews the application of emerging data-driven methods in measuring human-environment interaction in urban spaces. The synthesis of 242 studies reveals a diversified application landscape of data-driven methods, employing street view imagery data, social media data, positioning data, physiological data, and video data, each carrying distinct information and addressing various research inquiries. We also review the new insights generated by their application, which offered evidence for analyzing and evaluating a wide range of established frameworks and classic theories concerning human perceptual, cognitive, emotional, and behavioral aspects in urban spaces. Based on these findings, we describe the trends, advancements, and limitations of this rising research field, and make recommendations for future researchers adopting data-driven methods to understand relationships between humans and environments in urban spaces.
Evaluate user satisfaction for urban design of railway station areas
An assessment framework using agent-based simulation
Journal article
(2025)
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Chen Enshan, Stefan van der Spek, Frank van der Hoeven, Manuela Triggianese
Aims
Railway station areas can play a crucial role in promoting sustainable development if integrated with cities and be fluctuation-responsive through effective urban design. However, during the design stage, assessing the station areas' performance, of which user satisfaction is indicative, is challenging due to methodological limitations. Agent-based simulation (ABS) is promising as it can link spatial features with agents' behavior features. This research questions to what extent ABS can help assess the urban design of station areas.
Methods
This paper adopts the user pyramid as the theoretical framework, which outlines five types of user needs: safety, speed, ease, comfort, and experience. The paper selects indicators linking satisfaction and spatial features at the district and building levels. These indicators are measured in the simulation of the station system using digital tools, including MassMotion and Python scripts. The theory, indicators, and tools, in combination, serve as an assessment framework. Rotterdam Central Station is used as a case to demonstrate how the framework works.
Results
The framework is capable of assessing design alternatives by identifying changes in user satisfaction. It can be applied on the district level (at a scale of 250 m) with substantial details to inform design decision-making, and it is useful during the design stage when only limited data is available. This paper strengthens the scientific knowledge of railway station areas through the multidisciplinary literature review that translates user needs for urban design use, and it advances the digital means to visualize user satisfaction affected by design. ...
Railway station areas can play a crucial role in promoting sustainable development if integrated with cities and be fluctuation-responsive through effective urban design. However, during the design stage, assessing the station areas' performance, of which user satisfaction is indicative, is challenging due to methodological limitations. Agent-based simulation (ABS) is promising as it can link spatial features with agents' behavior features. This research questions to what extent ABS can help assess the urban design of station areas.
Methods
This paper adopts the user pyramid as the theoretical framework, which outlines five types of user needs: safety, speed, ease, comfort, and experience. The paper selects indicators linking satisfaction and spatial features at the district and building levels. These indicators are measured in the simulation of the station system using digital tools, including MassMotion and Python scripts. The theory, indicators, and tools, in combination, serve as an assessment framework. Rotterdam Central Station is used as a case to demonstrate how the framework works.
Results
The framework is capable of assessing design alternatives by identifying changes in user satisfaction. It can be applied on the district level (at a scale of 250 m) with substantial details to inform design decision-making, and it is useful during the design stage when only limited data is available. This paper strengthens the scientific knowledge of railway station areas through the multidisciplinary literature review that translates user needs for urban design use, and it advances the digital means to visualize user satisfaction affected by design. ...
Aims
Railway station areas can play a crucial role in promoting sustainable development if integrated with cities and be fluctuation-responsive through effective urban design. However, during the design stage, assessing the station areas' performance, of which user satisfaction is indicative, is challenging due to methodological limitations. Agent-based simulation (ABS) is promising as it can link spatial features with agents' behavior features. This research questions to what extent ABS can help assess the urban design of station areas.
Methods
This paper adopts the user pyramid as the theoretical framework, which outlines five types of user needs: safety, speed, ease, comfort, and experience. The paper selects indicators linking satisfaction and spatial features at the district and building levels. These indicators are measured in the simulation of the station system using digital tools, including MassMotion and Python scripts. The theory, indicators, and tools, in combination, serve as an assessment framework. Rotterdam Central Station is used as a case to demonstrate how the framework works.
Results
The framework is capable of assessing design alternatives by identifying changes in user satisfaction. It can be applied on the district level (at a scale of 250 m) with substantial details to inform design decision-making, and it is useful during the design stage when only limited data is available. This paper strengthens the scientific knowledge of railway station areas through the multidisciplinary literature review that translates user needs for urban design use, and it advances the digital means to visualize user satisfaction affected by design.
Railway station areas can play a crucial role in promoting sustainable development if integrated with cities and be fluctuation-responsive through effective urban design. However, during the design stage, assessing the station areas' performance, of which user satisfaction is indicative, is challenging due to methodological limitations. Agent-based simulation (ABS) is promising as it can link spatial features with agents' behavior features. This research questions to what extent ABS can help assess the urban design of station areas.
Methods
This paper adopts the user pyramid as the theoretical framework, which outlines five types of user needs: safety, speed, ease, comfort, and experience. The paper selects indicators linking satisfaction and spatial features at the district and building levels. These indicators are measured in the simulation of the station system using digital tools, including MassMotion and Python scripts. The theory, indicators, and tools, in combination, serve as an assessment framework. Rotterdam Central Station is used as a case to demonstrate how the framework works.
Results
The framework is capable of assessing design alternatives by identifying changes in user satisfaction. It can be applied on the district level (at a scale of 250 m) with substantial details to inform design decision-making, and it is useful during the design stage when only limited data is available. This paper strengthens the scientific knowledge of railway station areas through the multidisciplinary literature review that translates user needs for urban design use, and it advances the digital means to visualize user satisfaction affected by design.
Mobility Futures
Four scenarios for the Dutch mobility system in 2050
Mobility is vital for societal wellbeing, economic growth, social inclusion, and access to essential amenities. However, the current system faces significant challenges, including environmental impact, unequal access, and safety concerns. […]
...
Mobility is vital for societal wellbeing, economic growth, social inclusion, and access to essential amenities. However, the current system faces significant challenges, including environmental impact, unequal access, and safety concerns. […]
Design principles are widely used in the design field, yet some remain visionary rather than grounded in real-world applications. Assessing their effectiveness is therefore essential before implementation. This study focuses on a set of visionary design principles intended to promote the flexible use of railway station areas: (1) Ensuring event visibility by aligning paths and spaces; (2) Incorporating reconfigurable elements and reconfiguration-supportive layouts; (3) Establishing high-quality connections at different scales; (4) Adopting scattered layouts for high capacity or vibrancy; (5) Prioritizing core spaces for humans instead of vehicles. This study aims to address the gap in validating these design principles. Recognizing the potential of jointly employing research-by-design and agent-based simulation, this study presents a major research question: How effective are these design principles, as demonstrated through research-by-design (RbD) and agent-based simulation (ABS)? Methodologically, it first applies the design principles to Station Xtreme and generates multiple design proposals, then simulates the generated proposals, followed by assessments and reflections. The results suggest that the principles are generally effective, though limitations emerged: for example, quality connections may demand greater investment and space, while scattered layouts can increase wayfinding difficulty and operational complexity. This study contributes to the growing body of design knowledge by validating these flexible-use principles. It also introduces a transferable conceptual framework that integrates RbD and ABS, offering a novel methodological approach for testing other visionary design principles.
...
Design principles are widely used in the design field, yet some remain visionary rather than grounded in real-world applications. Assessing their effectiveness is therefore essential before implementation. This study focuses on a set of visionary design principles intended to promote the flexible use of railway station areas: (1) Ensuring event visibility by aligning paths and spaces; (2) Incorporating reconfigurable elements and reconfiguration-supportive layouts; (3) Establishing high-quality connections at different scales; (4) Adopting scattered layouts for high capacity or vibrancy; (5) Prioritizing core spaces for humans instead of vehicles. This study aims to address the gap in validating these design principles. Recognizing the potential of jointly employing research-by-design and agent-based simulation, this study presents a major research question: How effective are these design principles, as demonstrated through research-by-design (RbD) and agent-based simulation (ABS)? Methodologically, it first applies the design principles to Station Xtreme and generates multiple design proposals, then simulates the generated proposals, followed by assessments and reflections. The results suggest that the principles are generally effective, though limitations emerged: for example, quality connections may demand greater investment and space, while scattered layouts can increase wayfinding difficulty and operational complexity. This study contributes to the growing body of design knowledge by validating these flexible-use principles. It also introduces a transferable conceptual framework that integrates RbD and ABS, offering a novel methodological approach for testing other visionary design principles.
Transport infrastructure renewal and active mobility
A longitudinal analysis of pedestrian and cyclist behavior across demographic and temporal dimensions
Urban infrastructure renewal significantly influences active mobility patterns, offering opportunities to enhance urban liveability and accessibility. Much of the existing research on active mobility has been cross-sectional and is susceptible to self-selection bias, where individuals who prefer active travel tend to live in walkable neighborhoods. To address this limitation, this study employs a longitudinal approach to analyze changes in pedestrian and cyclist behavior on Viale Argonne in Milan during and after an urban renewal project. Using Strava Metro data, the analysis reveals substantial increases in leisure pedestrian trips, particularly during evening hours and among younger (18–34) and middle-aged (35–54) demographics, highlighting temporal and demographic variations. All activity types exhibited a spatial shift from sidewalks to the redesigned raised median island, reflecting the enhanced streetscape’s appeal. While leisure mobility speeds generally decreased, commute mobility speeds showed variable increases. Gender differences in activity levels remained negligible. These findings underscore the value of longitudinal methods and objective mobility data in evaluating urban design interventions. The results provide actionable insights for sustainable urban design, emphasizing the role of inclusive and well-planned infrastructure in fostering active travel and improving public health outcomes.
...
Urban infrastructure renewal significantly influences active mobility patterns, offering opportunities to enhance urban liveability and accessibility. Much of the existing research on active mobility has been cross-sectional and is susceptible to self-selection bias, where individuals who prefer active travel tend to live in walkable neighborhoods. To address this limitation, this study employs a longitudinal approach to analyze changes in pedestrian and cyclist behavior on Viale Argonne in Milan during and after an urban renewal project. Using Strava Metro data, the analysis reveals substantial increases in leisure pedestrian trips, particularly during evening hours and among younger (18–34) and middle-aged (35–54) demographics, highlighting temporal and demographic variations. All activity types exhibited a spatial shift from sidewalks to the redesigned raised median island, reflecting the enhanced streetscape’s appeal. While leisure mobility speeds generally decreased, commute mobility speeds showed variable increases. Gender differences in activity levels remained negligible. These findings underscore the value of longitudinal methods and objective mobility data in evaluating urban design interventions. The results provide actionable insights for sustainable urban design, emphasizing the role of inclusive and well-planned infrastructure in fostering active travel and improving public health outcomes.
Making post-war urban neighbourhoods healthier
Involving residents’ perspectives in selecting locations for health promoting urban redesign interventions
Journal article
(2023)
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Sijmen A. Reijneveld, Marijke Koene, Jolanda Tuinstra, Stefan C. van der Spek, Manda Broekhuis, Cor Wagenaar
Post-war urban neighbourhoods in industrialised countries have been shown to negatively affect the lifestyles of their residents due to their design. This study aims at developing an empirical procedure to select locations to be redesigned and the determinants of health at stake in these locations, with involvement of residents’ perspectives as core issue. We addressed a post-war neighbourhood in the city of Groningen, the Netherlands. We collected data from three perspectives: spatial analyses by urban designers, interviews with experts in local health and social care (n = 11) and online questionnaires filled in by residents (n = 99). These data provided input for the selection of locations to be redesigned by a multidisciplinary team (n = 16). The procedure yielded the following types of locations (and determinants): An area adjacent to a central shopping mall (social interaction, traffic safety, physical activity), a park (experiencing green, physical activity, social safety, social interaction) and a block of low-rise row houses around a public square (social safety, social interaction, traffic safety). We developed an empirical procedure for the selection of locations and determinants to be addressed, with addressing residents’ perspectives. This procedure is potentially applicable to similar neighbourhoods internationally.
...
Post-war urban neighbourhoods in industrialised countries have been shown to negatively affect the lifestyles of their residents due to their design. This study aims at developing an empirical procedure to select locations to be redesigned and the determinants of health at stake in these locations, with involvement of residents’ perspectives as core issue. We addressed a post-war neighbourhood in the city of Groningen, the Netherlands. We collected data from three perspectives: spatial analyses by urban designers, interviews with experts in local health and social care (n = 11) and online questionnaires filled in by residents (n = 99). These data provided input for the selection of locations to be redesigned by a multidisciplinary team (n = 16). The procedure yielded the following types of locations (and determinants): An area adjacent to a central shopping mall (social interaction, traffic safety, physical activity), a park (experiencing green, physical activity, social safety, social interaction) and a block of low-rise row houses around a public square (social safety, social interaction, traffic safety). We developed an empirical procedure for the selection of locations and determinants to be addressed, with addressing residents’ perspectives. This procedure is potentially applicable to similar neighbourhoods internationally.
The impact of interventions in the built environment on physical activity levels
A systematic umbrella review
Review
(2022)
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Yufang Zhang, Marijke Koene, Sijmen A. Reijneveld, Jolanda Tuinstra, Manda Broekhuis, Stefan van der Spek, Cor Wagenaar
Physical activity is good for people’s health. The relationship between the built environment and physical activity has been well documented. However, evidence is both scarce and scattered on specific urban interventions, i.e., intentional redesigns of the built environment that promote physical activity accompanied by pre- and post-effect measurement. This umbrella review aims to synthesize the findings of systematic reviews focused on these urban interventions. We followed the PRISMA 2020 and JBI umbrella review protocol guidelines and searched seven databases covering the period between Jan 2010 and April 2022 using keywords relating to the built environment, health, physical activity, and interventions. This yielded seven systematic reviews, in which we identified several urban interventions that can promote physical activity. We found positive effects of urban interventions on physical activity regarding park renovations, adding exercise equipment, introducing a (new) pocket park, improving cycling environments, improving walking & cycling environments, as well as multi-component initiatives for active travel and enhancing the availability & accessibility of destinations. The findings suggest that the urban environment can effectively promote physical activity, especially by adding various facilities and destinations and by making the environment better suitable for active use.
...
Physical activity is good for people’s health. The relationship between the built environment and physical activity has been well documented. However, evidence is both scarce and scattered on specific urban interventions, i.e., intentional redesigns of the built environment that promote physical activity accompanied by pre- and post-effect measurement. This umbrella review aims to synthesize the findings of systematic reviews focused on these urban interventions. We followed the PRISMA 2020 and JBI umbrella review protocol guidelines and searched seven databases covering the period between Jan 2010 and April 2022 using keywords relating to the built environment, health, physical activity, and interventions. This yielded seven systematic reviews, in which we identified several urban interventions that can promote physical activity. We found positive effects of urban interventions on physical activity regarding park renovations, adding exercise equipment, introducing a (new) pocket park, improving cycling environments, improving walking & cycling environments, as well as multi-component initiatives for active travel and enhancing the availability & accessibility of destinations. The findings suggest that the urban environment can effectively promote physical activity, especially by adding various facilities and destinations and by making the environment better suitable for active use.
Station City Integration in China
Towards Mobility Resilience and Public Space Flexibility
Introduction: In China, Station-City Integration is proposed by the design academy in China to solve problems and add value. This research focuses on urban design for the redevelopment of Old Major Railway Stations in Megacities in China.
Problems & Goals: From our focused cases, two problems are discovered: Stuckness and congestion on peak days, Space underuse on normal days. Two goals are proposed correspondingly: Mobility Resilience and Public Space Flexibility.
Knowledge Gaps: Theoretical and practical knowledge are lacking for the proposed goals. The component words of the goals all have rich meanings. Some of them have related assessment tools and design recommendations.
Research Questions: For urban design research and practice, how can Mobility Resilience and Public Space Flexibility be defined, assessed, and designed?
Deliverables: The deliverables will be Concept Definitions, Assessment Frameworks, and Design Principles. The Concept Definitions offer researchers a new way to see the Station City problems. The Assessment Frameworks offer researchers a new tool to assess the Station City problems through different dimensions. It can also be used for evaluations during the iterative design process. The Design Principles can be used for the scheme establishment.
Methods: For Concept Definitions, papers about mobility, resilience, public space, and flexibility were examined to propose definitions. For Assessment Framework, available technologies & data will be tested. For Design Principles, case studies of the best practices will be conducted.
Relevance: Scientifically, the Problem Identifications show a creative way of framing research problems between specification and generalization. These Concept Definitions show a solid way of transferring knowledge from other disciplines to urban design fields. Societally, the Problems Identifications and Concept Definitions set a starting point for practitioners to take action. The Assessment Frameworks and Design Principles are practical tools for designers. ...
Problems & Goals: From our focused cases, two problems are discovered: Stuckness and congestion on peak days, Space underuse on normal days. Two goals are proposed correspondingly: Mobility Resilience and Public Space Flexibility.
Knowledge Gaps: Theoretical and practical knowledge are lacking for the proposed goals. The component words of the goals all have rich meanings. Some of them have related assessment tools and design recommendations.
Research Questions: For urban design research and practice, how can Mobility Resilience and Public Space Flexibility be defined, assessed, and designed?
Deliverables: The deliverables will be Concept Definitions, Assessment Frameworks, and Design Principles. The Concept Definitions offer researchers a new way to see the Station City problems. The Assessment Frameworks offer researchers a new tool to assess the Station City problems through different dimensions. It can also be used for evaluations during the iterative design process. The Design Principles can be used for the scheme establishment.
Methods: For Concept Definitions, papers about mobility, resilience, public space, and flexibility were examined to propose definitions. For Assessment Framework, available technologies & data will be tested. For Design Principles, case studies of the best practices will be conducted.
Relevance: Scientifically, the Problem Identifications show a creative way of framing research problems between specification and generalization. These Concept Definitions show a solid way of transferring knowledge from other disciplines to urban design fields. Societally, the Problems Identifications and Concept Definitions set a starting point for practitioners to take action. The Assessment Frameworks and Design Principles are practical tools for designers. ...
Introduction: In China, Station-City Integration is proposed by the design academy in China to solve problems and add value. This research focuses on urban design for the redevelopment of Old Major Railway Stations in Megacities in China.
Problems & Goals: From our focused cases, two problems are discovered: Stuckness and congestion on peak days, Space underuse on normal days. Two goals are proposed correspondingly: Mobility Resilience and Public Space Flexibility.
Knowledge Gaps: Theoretical and practical knowledge are lacking for the proposed goals. The component words of the goals all have rich meanings. Some of them have related assessment tools and design recommendations.
Research Questions: For urban design research and practice, how can Mobility Resilience and Public Space Flexibility be defined, assessed, and designed?
Deliverables: The deliverables will be Concept Definitions, Assessment Frameworks, and Design Principles. The Concept Definitions offer researchers a new way to see the Station City problems. The Assessment Frameworks offer researchers a new tool to assess the Station City problems through different dimensions. It can also be used for evaluations during the iterative design process. The Design Principles can be used for the scheme establishment.
Methods: For Concept Definitions, papers about mobility, resilience, public space, and flexibility were examined to propose definitions. For Assessment Framework, available technologies & data will be tested. For Design Principles, case studies of the best practices will be conducted.
Relevance: Scientifically, the Problem Identifications show a creative way of framing research problems between specification and generalization. These Concept Definitions show a solid way of transferring knowledge from other disciplines to urban design fields. Societally, the Problems Identifications and Concept Definitions set a starting point for practitioners to take action. The Assessment Frameworks and Design Principles are practical tools for designers.
Problems & Goals: From our focused cases, two problems are discovered: Stuckness and congestion on peak days, Space underuse on normal days. Two goals are proposed correspondingly: Mobility Resilience and Public Space Flexibility.
Knowledge Gaps: Theoretical and practical knowledge are lacking for the proposed goals. The component words of the goals all have rich meanings. Some of them have related assessment tools and design recommendations.
Research Questions: For urban design research and practice, how can Mobility Resilience and Public Space Flexibility be defined, assessed, and designed?
Deliverables: The deliverables will be Concept Definitions, Assessment Frameworks, and Design Principles. The Concept Definitions offer researchers a new way to see the Station City problems. The Assessment Frameworks offer researchers a new tool to assess the Station City problems through different dimensions. It can also be used for evaluations during the iterative design process. The Design Principles can be used for the scheme establishment.
Methods: For Concept Definitions, papers about mobility, resilience, public space, and flexibility were examined to propose definitions. For Assessment Framework, available technologies & data will be tested. For Design Principles, case studies of the best practices will be conducted.
Relevance: Scientifically, the Problem Identifications show a creative way of framing research problems between specification and generalization. These Concept Definitions show a solid way of transferring knowledge from other disciplines to urban design fields. Societally, the Problems Identifications and Concept Definitions set a starting point for practitioners to take action. The Assessment Frameworks and Design Principles are practical tools for designers.
This study seeks answers to the research question ‘How can walkability of urban spaces be analysed with a multidimensional approach by using mobile methods?’ The research consists of a literature review, a field study in the city centre of Delft conducted as Go-Along walks, which provide better insight in capturing the experience of walking in situ, and evaluation of design scenarios that were developed according to the outcomes of the field study. As a result, the study emphasizes the strong inter-relations between metrics for a walkable place and the necessity to discuss walkability multi-dimensionally.
...
This study seeks answers to the research question ‘How can walkability of urban spaces be analysed with a multidimensional approach by using mobile methods?’ The research consists of a literature review, a field study in the city centre of Delft conducted as Go-Along walks, which provide better insight in capturing the experience of walking in situ, and evaluation of design scenarios that were developed according to the outcomes of the field study. As a result, the study emphasizes the strong inter-relations between metrics for a walkable place and the necessity to discuss walkability multi-dimensionally.
Travellers’ preferences towards existing and emerging means of first/last mile transport
A case study for the Almere centrum railway station in the Netherlands
Journal article
(2021)
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Bas Stam, Niels van Oort, Hilke J. van Strijp-Harms, Stefan C. van der Spek, Serge P. Hoogendoorn
First/last mile transport is essential for transit but is often found to be the weakest link in a trip. Moreover, as a result of multiple developments (e.g. demographic shifts, urbanization, climate change, technology advancement) first/last mile transport will likely change rapidly. The literature review of this study shows six different categories of factors affecting first/last mile mode choice: (1) traveller, (2) psychological, (3) first/last mile trip, (4) first/last mile modes, (5) built environment, and (6) main stage. We used this framework to understand and predict the complex process of mode choice, specifically given the emerge of new modes. The performed mode choice experiment shows varying results regarding the preferences of travellers for existing and new means of first/last mile transport. Four future scenarios (varying in level of sharing and flexibility of rides) are investigated. Traditional means of transport such as private vehicles and traditional ride services remain preferred over shared vehicles and on-demand ride services. For instance, 21% of the travellers chooses a private but no shared vehicle, and 12% chooses a traditional but no on-demand ride service. On the other hand, 21% of the travellers prefer a shared vehicle and 23% prefer an on-demand ride service whenever these vehicles/services are available. These results illustrate that when mode choice factors are absent and there are no restrictions taken into account (for example the possession of a car and driving license when choosing car), the actual chosen means of transport in the current situation differs from the preferred means of transport in the future. The results also show potential for new, emerging, means of first/last mile transport. According to the ‘preferred situation’ by travellers, transit nodes and first/last mile systems require a different design regarding first/last mile facilities, dependent on the scenario(s) that will develop. The challenge for decision makers and planners is to steer mode choice decisions in the direction according to their policy objectives, where our insights support the corresponding design choices and policy interventions.
...
First/last mile transport is essential for transit but is often found to be the weakest link in a trip. Moreover, as a result of multiple developments (e.g. demographic shifts, urbanization, climate change, technology advancement) first/last mile transport will likely change rapidly. The literature review of this study shows six different categories of factors affecting first/last mile mode choice: (1) traveller, (2) psychological, (3) first/last mile trip, (4) first/last mile modes, (5) built environment, and (6) main stage. We used this framework to understand and predict the complex process of mode choice, specifically given the emerge of new modes. The performed mode choice experiment shows varying results regarding the preferences of travellers for existing and new means of first/last mile transport. Four future scenarios (varying in level of sharing and flexibility of rides) are investigated. Traditional means of transport such as private vehicles and traditional ride services remain preferred over shared vehicles and on-demand ride services. For instance, 21% of the travellers chooses a private but no shared vehicle, and 12% chooses a traditional but no on-demand ride service. On the other hand, 21% of the travellers prefer a shared vehicle and 23% prefer an on-demand ride service whenever these vehicles/services are available. These results illustrate that when mode choice factors are absent and there are no restrictions taken into account (for example the possession of a car and driving license when choosing car), the actual chosen means of transport in the current situation differs from the preferred means of transport in the future. The results also show potential for new, emerging, means of first/last mile transport. According to the ‘preferred situation’ by travellers, transit nodes and first/last mile systems require a different design regarding first/last mile facilities, dependent on the scenario(s) that will develop. The challenge for decision makers and planners is to steer mode choice decisions in the direction according to their policy objectives, where our insights support the corresponding design choices and policy interventions.
Research on moving objects and analysis of movement patterns in urban networks can help us evaluate urban land-use types. With the help of technologies such as global positioning systems, spatial information systems and spatial data the study of movement patterns is possible. By understanding and quantifying the patterns of pedestrian trajectories, we can find effects of and relations between urban land-use types and movements of pedestrians. Understanding urban land-use and their relationships with human activities has great implications for smart and sustainable urban development. In this study, we use the data of various urban land-use types and the trajectory of pedestrians in an urban environment. This paper presents a new approach for identifying busy urban land-use by semantic spatial trajectory in which urban land-uses are assessed according to the pedestrian trajectories. Undoubtedly, the extraction of popular urban land-uses and analysis of the association between popular places and the spatial and semantic movement allow us to improve the urban structure and city marketing system. In this regard, for semantic analysis of urban land-use, all stop points are extracted by a time threshold and they are enriched according to semantic information such as age, occupation, and gender. We examine if and how habits of using land-use types depend on qualities such as age, gender and occupation. For analysis of effects of various urban land-use types, all stop points near each urban land-use are detected. Determining what type of urban land-use cause pedestrian traffic and high absorption coefficient and what relation such high traffic has with semantic information such as age, occupation and gender. By clustering the stop points, the results indicate that stop at urban networks for each gender have a spatial correlation. Also, the results show that some urban land-use types have high traffic and we have a correlation with some semantic information such as age, gender and occupation.
...
Research on moving objects and analysis of movement patterns in urban networks can help us evaluate urban land-use types. With the help of technologies such as global positioning systems, spatial information systems and spatial data the study of movement patterns is possible. By understanding and quantifying the patterns of pedestrian trajectories, we can find effects of and relations between urban land-use types and movements of pedestrians. Understanding urban land-use and their relationships with human activities has great implications for smart and sustainable urban development. In this study, we use the data of various urban land-use types and the trajectory of pedestrians in an urban environment. This paper presents a new approach for identifying busy urban land-use by semantic spatial trajectory in which urban land-uses are assessed according to the pedestrian trajectories. Undoubtedly, the extraction of popular urban land-uses and analysis of the association between popular places and the spatial and semantic movement allow us to improve the urban structure and city marketing system. In this regard, for semantic analysis of urban land-use, all stop points are extracted by a time threshold and they are enriched according to semantic information such as age, occupation, and gender. We examine if and how habits of using land-use types depend on qualities such as age, gender and occupation. For analysis of effects of various urban land-use types, all stop points near each urban land-use are detected. Determining what type of urban land-use cause pedestrian traffic and high absorption coefficient and what relation such high traffic has with semantic information such as age, occupation and gender. By clustering the stop points, the results indicate that stop at urban networks for each gender have a spatial correlation. Also, the results show that some urban land-use types have high traffic and we have a correlation with some semantic information such as age, gender and occupation.
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to provide local environmental information to raise community’s environmental awareness, as a cornerstone to improve the quality of the built environment. Next to that, it provides environmental information to professionals and academia in the fields of urbanism and urban microclimate, making it available for reuse.
Design/methodology/approach
The wireless sensor network (WSN) consists of sensor platforms deployed at fixed locations in the urban environment, measuring temperature, humidity, noise and air quality. Measurements are transferred to a server via long range wide area network (LoRaWAN). Data are also processed and publicly disseminated via the server. The WSN is made interactive as to increase user involvement, i.e. people who pass by a physical sensor in the city can interact with the sensor platform and request specific environmental data in near real time.
Findings
Microclimate phenomena such as temperature, humidity and air quality can be successfully measured with a WSN. Noise measurements are less suitable to send over LoRaWAN due to high temporal variations.
Research limitations/implications
Further testing and development of the sensor modules is needed to ensure consistent measurements and data quality.
Practical implications
Due to time and budget limitations for the project group, it was not possible to gather reliable data for noise and air quality. Therefore, conclusions on the effect of the measurements on the built environment cannot currently be drawn.
Originality/value
An autonomously working low-cost low-energy WSN gathering near real-time environmental data is successfully deployed. Ensuring data quality of the measurement results is subject for upcoming research. ...
The purpose of this paper is to provide local environmental information to raise community’s environmental awareness, as a cornerstone to improve the quality of the built environment. Next to that, it provides environmental information to professionals and academia in the fields of urbanism and urban microclimate, making it available for reuse.
Design/methodology/approach
The wireless sensor network (WSN) consists of sensor platforms deployed at fixed locations in the urban environment, measuring temperature, humidity, noise and air quality. Measurements are transferred to a server via long range wide area network (LoRaWAN). Data are also processed and publicly disseminated via the server. The WSN is made interactive as to increase user involvement, i.e. people who pass by a physical sensor in the city can interact with the sensor platform and request specific environmental data in near real time.
Findings
Microclimate phenomena such as temperature, humidity and air quality can be successfully measured with a WSN. Noise measurements are less suitable to send over LoRaWAN due to high temporal variations.
Research limitations/implications
Further testing and development of the sensor modules is needed to ensure consistent measurements and data quality.
Practical implications
Due to time and budget limitations for the project group, it was not possible to gather reliable data for noise and air quality. Therefore, conclusions on the effect of the measurements on the built environment cannot currently be drawn.
Originality/value
An autonomously working low-cost low-energy WSN gathering near real-time environmental data is successfully deployed. Ensuring data quality of the measurement results is subject for upcoming research. ...
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to provide local environmental information to raise community’s environmental awareness, as a cornerstone to improve the quality of the built environment. Next to that, it provides environmental information to professionals and academia in the fields of urbanism and urban microclimate, making it available for reuse.
Design/methodology/approach
The wireless sensor network (WSN) consists of sensor platforms deployed at fixed locations in the urban environment, measuring temperature, humidity, noise and air quality. Measurements are transferred to a server via long range wide area network (LoRaWAN). Data are also processed and publicly disseminated via the server. The WSN is made interactive as to increase user involvement, i.e. people who pass by a physical sensor in the city can interact with the sensor platform and request specific environmental data in near real time.
Findings
Microclimate phenomena such as temperature, humidity and air quality can be successfully measured with a WSN. Noise measurements are less suitable to send over LoRaWAN due to high temporal variations.
Research limitations/implications
Further testing and development of the sensor modules is needed to ensure consistent measurements and data quality.
Practical implications
Due to time and budget limitations for the project group, it was not possible to gather reliable data for noise and air quality. Therefore, conclusions on the effect of the measurements on the built environment cannot currently be drawn.
Originality/value
An autonomously working low-cost low-energy WSN gathering near real-time environmental data is successfully deployed. Ensuring data quality of the measurement results is subject for upcoming research.
The purpose of this paper is to provide local environmental information to raise community’s environmental awareness, as a cornerstone to improve the quality of the built environment. Next to that, it provides environmental information to professionals and academia in the fields of urbanism and urban microclimate, making it available for reuse.
Design/methodology/approach
The wireless sensor network (WSN) consists of sensor platforms deployed at fixed locations in the urban environment, measuring temperature, humidity, noise and air quality. Measurements are transferred to a server via long range wide area network (LoRaWAN). Data are also processed and publicly disseminated via the server. The WSN is made interactive as to increase user involvement, i.e. people who pass by a physical sensor in the city can interact with the sensor platform and request specific environmental data in near real time.
Findings
Microclimate phenomena such as temperature, humidity and air quality can be successfully measured with a WSN. Noise measurements are less suitable to send over LoRaWAN due to high temporal variations.
Research limitations/implications
Further testing and development of the sensor modules is needed to ensure consistent measurements and data quality.
Practical implications
Due to time and budget limitations for the project group, it was not possible to gather reliable data for noise and air quality. Therefore, conclusions on the effect of the measurements on the built environment cannot currently be drawn.
Originality/value
An autonomously working low-cost low-energy WSN gathering near real-time environmental data is successfully deployed. Ensuring data quality of the measurement results is subject for upcoming research.
Conference paper
(2018)
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Lilia Angelova, Puck Flikweert, Panagiotis Karydakis, Daniël Kersbergen, Roos Teeuwen, Kotryna Valečkaitė, Edward Verbree, Martijn Meijers, Stefan van der Spek
Along with the rise of the smart city movement, Internet of Things is an upcoming phenomenon. Objects and devices are becoming more and more wirelessly interconnected, communicating information between themselves and to human beings. As an addition to static sensor networks that gather real-time environmental data, the feasibility of implementing a dynamic sensor network based on LoRa communication is researched. To achieve such a dynamic system, a self-developed sensor platform was constructed, based on the microcontroller LoPy, measuring temperature and humidity. The emphasis of the research is on the localisation of the sensor platforms. A WiFi fingerprinting radiomap was constructed based on available MAC-addresses, their signal strengths, and GPS coordinates. In this method the GPS module is only used for the composition of the radiomap. The quality of the radiomap methodology was assessed by constructing it of measurements gathered in four days, and testing it for the remaining three days. This test gave a correctness of 50% while another 38% of measurements were localised in a neighbouring cell. The quality of the collected sensor data turned out to be dependent on the weather conditions and the placement location on the carrier vehicle. Another topic of research was LoRa communication, which was deemed as very limited for dynamic implementations, as the sending of location-related data takes up a large part of the already limited message size.
...
Along with the rise of the smart city movement, Internet of Things is an upcoming phenomenon. Objects and devices are becoming more and more wirelessly interconnected, communicating information between themselves and to human beings. As an addition to static sensor networks that gather real-time environmental data, the feasibility of implementing a dynamic sensor network based on LoRa communication is researched. To achieve such a dynamic system, a self-developed sensor platform was constructed, based on the microcontroller LoPy, measuring temperature and humidity. The emphasis of the research is on the localisation of the sensor platforms. A WiFi fingerprinting radiomap was constructed based on available MAC-addresses, their signal strengths, and GPS coordinates. In this method the GPS module is only used for the composition of the radiomap. The quality of the radiomap methodology was assessed by constructing it of measurements gathered in four days, and testing it for the remaining three days. This test gave a correctness of 50% while another 38% of measurements were localised in a neighbouring cell. The quality of the collected sensor data turned out to be dependent on the weather conditions and the placement location on the carrier vehicle. Another topic of research was LoRa communication, which was deemed as very limited for dynamic implementations, as the sending of location-related data takes up a large part of the already limited message size.
Managing urban areas has become one of the most important development challenges of the 21st century. Building sustainable cities is a major factor nowadays. In this context, the advent of technologies such as GPS (Global Positioning System) and GIS (Geographical Information Systems) enables to better address the relationship between urban form and people travel behaviour. Spatial and temporal data can be collected at once, giving an insight into the actual movement pattern of people. In this paper we make a contribution to the existing literature in mobility and urban studies by comparing a series of GIS-based neighbourhood indicators with the actual people travel behaviour detected by GPS survey. Information about built environment characteristics is retrieved by OpenStreetMap and other datasets. 10 different neighbourhoods in The Netherlands are compared and in the end the main features that characterize efficient neighbourhoods in terms of sustainable mobility patterns are identified.
...
Managing urban areas has become one of the most important development challenges of the 21st century. Building sustainable cities is a major factor nowadays. In this context, the advent of technologies such as GPS (Global Positioning System) and GIS (Geographical Information Systems) enables to better address the relationship between urban form and people travel behaviour. Spatial and temporal data can be collected at once, giving an insight into the actual movement pattern of people. In this paper we make a contribution to the existing literature in mobility and urban studies by comparing a series of GIS-based neighbourhood indicators with the actual people travel behaviour detected by GPS survey. Information about built environment characteristics is retrieved by OpenStreetMap and other datasets. 10 different neighbourhoods in The Netherlands are compared and in the end the main features that characterize efficient neighbourhoods in terms of sustainable mobility patterns are identified.
Conference paper
(2017)
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Simon Griffioen, Martijn Vermeer, Balázs Dukai, Stefan van der Spek, Edward Verbree
Knowledge of people's locations and related mobility patterns are important for many decision-making processes. How to efficiently use the available space, is a common problem in many fields. Wireless Local Area Networks (WLAN) are widely used for locating mobile devices within this network. This study attempts to identify movement from Wi-Fi log data on the Delft University of Technology campus. The proposed method automatically explores people’s movement by firstly, extract stay places, secondly discover movement and finally, identify movement patterns. This method is studied for two spatial levels: (1) at building level, movement between, from and to buildings can be detected, (2) at building-part level, movement between, from and to large indoor regions can be detected. For indoor analysis, the travelled path is estimated using a network graph of the underlying floorplan. This paper shows promising results for mining people’s movement patterns between buildings and indoor building-parts.
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Knowledge of people's locations and related mobility patterns are important for many decision-making processes. How to efficiently use the available space, is a common problem in many fields. Wireless Local Area Networks (WLAN) are widely used for locating mobile devices within this network. This study attempts to identify movement from Wi-Fi log data on the Delft University of Technology campus. The proposed method automatically explores people’s movement by firstly, extract stay places, secondly discover movement and finally, identify movement patterns. This method is studied for two spatial levels: (1) at building level, movement between, from and to buildings can be detected, (2) at building-part level, movement between, from and to large indoor regions can be detected. For indoor analysis, the travelled path is estimated using a network graph of the underlying floorplan. This paper shows promising results for mining people’s movement patterns between buildings and indoor building-parts.
Urban road traffic is highly dynamic. Traffic conditions vary in time and with location and so do the movement patterns of individual road users. In this article, a movement pattern is the behaviour of a car when traversing a road link in an urban road network. A movement pattern can be recorded with a global navigation satellite system (GNSS), such as the Global Positioning System (GPS). A movement pattern has a specific energy-efficiency, which is a measure of how fuel-intensively the car is moving. For example, a car driving uniformly at medium speed consumes little fuel and, therefore, is energy-efficient, whereas stop-and-go driving consumes much fuel and is energy-inefficient. In this article we introduce a model to estimate the energy-efficiency of movement patterns in urban road traffic from GNSS data. First, we derived statistical features about the car's movement along the road. Then, we compared these to fuel consumption data from the car's controller area network (CAN) bus, normalized to the car's overall range of fuel consumption. We identified the optimal feature set for prediction. With the optimal feature set we trained, tested and verified a model to estimate energy-efficiency, with the fuel consumption serving as ground truth. Existing fuel consumption models usually view movement as a snapshot. Thus, the behaviour of the car remains unknown that causes a movement pattern to be energy-efficient or energy-inefficient. Our model views movement as a process and allows to interpret this process. A movement pattern can, for example, be energy-inefficient because the car is driving in stop-and-go traffic, because it is travelling at high speed, or because it is accelerating. Our model allows to distinguish between these different types of behaviours. Thus, it can provide new insights into the dynamics of urban road traffic and its energy-efficiency.
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Urban road traffic is highly dynamic. Traffic conditions vary in time and with location and so do the movement patterns of individual road users. In this article, a movement pattern is the behaviour of a car when traversing a road link in an urban road network. A movement pattern can be recorded with a global navigation satellite system (GNSS), such as the Global Positioning System (GPS). A movement pattern has a specific energy-efficiency, which is a measure of how fuel-intensively the car is moving. For example, a car driving uniformly at medium speed consumes little fuel and, therefore, is energy-efficient, whereas stop-and-go driving consumes much fuel and is energy-inefficient. In this article we introduce a model to estimate the energy-efficiency of movement patterns in urban road traffic from GNSS data. First, we derived statistical features about the car's movement along the road. Then, we compared these to fuel consumption data from the car's controller area network (CAN) bus, normalized to the car's overall range of fuel consumption. We identified the optimal feature set for prediction. With the optimal feature set we trained, tested and verified a model to estimate energy-efficiency, with the fuel consumption serving as ground truth. Existing fuel consumption models usually view movement as a snapshot. Thus, the behaviour of the car remains unknown that causes a movement pattern to be energy-efficient or energy-inefficient. Our model views movement as a process and allows to interpret this process. A movement pattern can, for example, be energy-inefficient because the car is driving in stop-and-go traffic, because it is travelling at high speed, or because it is accelerating. Our model allows to distinguish between these different types of behaviours. Thus, it can provide new insights into the dynamics of urban road traffic and its energy-efficiency.
A2B
Identifying movement patterns from largescale Wi-Fi based location data
Conference paper
(2016)
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Stefan van der Spek, Edward Verbree, M. Bon, X.A. den Duijn, B. Dukai, S.J. Griffioen, Y Kang, M. Vermeer
The distribution of people in buildings, the occupancy of lecture-, work- and study places and the accessibility of facilities are essential information at university campuses who have to cope with limited and even shrinking budgets and huge, rising real estate costs. Only little insight is gained in both occupancy and movement patterns with traditional counting techniques and user-based questionnaires. Management teams state that rooms and facilities are hardly used, though staff and students complain about overcrowded facilities and limited flexibility. Actual and accurate data on a 24/7 scale with high-granularity is missing.
In general Facility- and Asset Management lacks efficient methods for realtime, comprehensive and high-granularity information of location, capacity and use of tangible and intangible assets. Asset management could benefit from more detailed, more accurate and longitudinal data on assets, providing more insight into efficiency and effectiveness on different levels of scale through time.
Existing technologies could provide a platform delivering those required insights. Navigation- and communication technologies such as GNSS, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, RFID can be used to ‘locate’ users, estimate intensities and reveal patterns of movement and patterns of use. For Asset management indoor localisation is essential. ...
In general Facility- and Asset Management lacks efficient methods for realtime, comprehensive and high-granularity information of location, capacity and use of tangible and intangible assets. Asset management could benefit from more detailed, more accurate and longitudinal data on assets, providing more insight into efficiency and effectiveness on different levels of scale through time.
Existing technologies could provide a platform delivering those required insights. Navigation- and communication technologies such as GNSS, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, RFID can be used to ‘locate’ users, estimate intensities and reveal patterns of movement and patterns of use. For Asset management indoor localisation is essential. ...
The distribution of people in buildings, the occupancy of lecture-, work- and study places and the accessibility of facilities are essential information at university campuses who have to cope with limited and even shrinking budgets and huge, rising real estate costs. Only little insight is gained in both occupancy and movement patterns with traditional counting techniques and user-based questionnaires. Management teams state that rooms and facilities are hardly used, though staff and students complain about overcrowded facilities and limited flexibility. Actual and accurate data on a 24/7 scale with high-granularity is missing.
In general Facility- and Asset Management lacks efficient methods for realtime, comprehensive and high-granularity information of location, capacity and use of tangible and intangible assets. Asset management could benefit from more detailed, more accurate and longitudinal data on assets, providing more insight into efficiency and effectiveness on different levels of scale through time.
Existing technologies could provide a platform delivering those required insights. Navigation- and communication technologies such as GNSS, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, RFID can be used to ‘locate’ users, estimate intensities and reveal patterns of movement and patterns of use. For Asset management indoor localisation is essential.
In general Facility- and Asset Management lacks efficient methods for realtime, comprehensive and high-granularity information of location, capacity and use of tangible and intangible assets. Asset management could benefit from more detailed, more accurate and longitudinal data on assets, providing more insight into efficiency and effectiveness on different levels of scale through time.
Existing technologies could provide a platform delivering those required insights. Navigation- and communication technologies such as GNSS, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, RFID can be used to ‘locate’ users, estimate intensities and reveal patterns of movement and patterns of use. For Asset management indoor localisation is essential.
With the help of technologies such as GPS tracks, GIS and open data is now possible to study people travel behaviour in a new way. Nowadays, large datasets can be easily handled thanks to databases and better visualized using GIS. Moreover, the availability of GPS data, open data and VGI makes accessible a lot of new information, which was not obtainable before. This research is about the analysis of mobility patterns in different neighbourhoods in three cities in the Netherlands. The study is based on the validation of mobility theoretical performances by the actual performances measured through the analysis of GPS logs of households, who live in the neighbourhoods. A series of spatial indicators based on proximity, density and accessibility are computed in order to assess the theoretical performances of the neighbourhoods. To achieve this task, information about built environment characteristics and infrastructure networks is retrieved from OpenStreetMap, and other datasets. In the end the neighbourhoods are classified into five classes, according to the different levels of performances in terms of sustainable mobility. In such a way, it is possible to better understand the key factors that influence actual people travel patterns, providing policy makers with accurate information about the real movement of people.
...
With the help of technologies such as GPS tracks, GIS and open data is now possible to study people travel behaviour in a new way. Nowadays, large datasets can be easily handled thanks to databases and better visualized using GIS. Moreover, the availability of GPS data, open data and VGI makes accessible a lot of new information, which was not obtainable before. This research is about the analysis of mobility patterns in different neighbourhoods in three cities in the Netherlands. The study is based on the validation of mobility theoretical performances by the actual performances measured through the analysis of GPS logs of households, who live in the neighbourhoods. A series of spatial indicators based on proximity, density and accessibility are computed in order to assess the theoretical performances of the neighbourhoods. To achieve this task, information about built environment characteristics and infrastructure networks is retrieved from OpenStreetMap, and other datasets. In the end the neighbourhoods are classified into five classes, according to the different levels of performances in terms of sustainable mobility. In such a way, it is possible to better understand the key factors that influence actual people travel patterns, providing policy makers with accurate information about the real movement of people.
Floating car data (FCD) recorded with the Global Positioning System (GPS) are an important data source for traffic research. However, FCD are subject to error, which can relate either to the accuracy of the recordings (measurement error) or to the temporal rate at which the data are sampled (interpolation error). Both errors affect movement parameters derived from the FCD, such as speed or direction, and consequently influence conclusions drawn about the movement. In this paper we combined recent findings about the autocorrelation of GPS measurement error and well-established findings from random walk theory to analyse a set of real-world FCD. First, we showed that the measurement error in the FCD was affected by positive autocorrelation. We explained why this is a quality measure of the data. Second, we evaluated four metrics to assess the influence of interpolation error. We found that interpolation error strongly affects the correct interpretation of the car’s dynamics (speed, direction), whereas its impact on the path (travelled distance, spatial location) was moderate. Based on these results we gave recommendations for recording of FCD using the GPS. Our recommendations only concern time-based sampling, change-based, location-based or event-based sampling are not discussed. The sampling approach minimizes the effects of error on movement parameters while avoiding the collection of redundant information. This is crucial for obtaining reliable results from FCD
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Floating car data (FCD) recorded with the Global Positioning System (GPS) are an important data source for traffic research. However, FCD are subject to error, which can relate either to the accuracy of the recordings (measurement error) or to the temporal rate at which the data are sampled (interpolation error). Both errors affect movement parameters derived from the FCD, such as speed or direction, and consequently influence conclusions drawn about the movement. In this paper we combined recent findings about the autocorrelation of GPS measurement error and well-established findings from random walk theory to analyse a set of real-world FCD. First, we showed that the measurement error in the FCD was affected by positive autocorrelation. We explained why this is a quality measure of the data. Second, we evaluated four metrics to assess the influence of interpolation error. We found that interpolation error strongly affects the correct interpretation of the car’s dynamics (speed, direction), whereas its impact on the path (travelled distance, spatial location) was moderate. Based on these results we gave recommendations for recording of FCD using the GPS. Our recommendations only concern time-based sampling, change-based, location-based or event-based sampling are not discussed. The sampling approach minimizes the effects of error on movement parameters while avoiding the collection of redundant information. This is crucial for obtaining reliable results from FCD
There are basically two kinds of city centres: historic and modern. Historic city centres, built in an era when no cars existed, tend to be very walkable environments. Modern cities, however, are much more car-dominated, leading to a less attractive walking environment. Rotterdam is one of the four main cities in the Netherlands and its historic city centre was destroyed during the Second World War. The post-war reconstruction mainly caters to cars, like many other cities throughout the world, resulting in a somewhat pedestrianunfriendly walking environment. We set out to analyse this environment and its users, and hopefully with our results, make recommendations for car-dominated cities worldwide. We wanted to find out which paths people really took and to gain insight about personal preferences in a modern, cardominated city. We wanted to extract lessons for improving the city centre based on both real experiences and objectively measured behaviour.
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There are basically two kinds of city centres: historic and modern. Historic city centres, built in an era when no cars existed, tend to be very walkable environments. Modern cities, however, are much more car-dominated, leading to a less attractive walking environment. Rotterdam is one of the four main cities in the Netherlands and its historic city centre was destroyed during the Second World War. The post-war reconstruction mainly caters to cars, like many other cities throughout the world, resulting in a somewhat pedestrianunfriendly walking environment. We set out to analyse this environment and its users, and hopefully with our results, make recommendations for car-dominated cities worldwide. We wanted to find out which paths people really took and to gain insight about personal preferences in a modern, cardominated city. We wanted to extract lessons for improving the city centre based on both real experiences and objectively measured behaviour.