Responding to Amsterdam’s ongoing housing challenges, this thesis uses the concept of alternative imaginaries to explore the need for new ways of thinking about housing. The research nuances dominant supply-driven solutions by studying how alternative housing imaginaries are presented, enacted, and negotiated from the bottom up. More specifically, this research uses the phenomenon of squatting as both a historical and contemporary form of housing resistance. Building on Amsterdam’s rich squatting history, this study uncovers what alternatives these movements envision and how they live their ideals in occupied spaces. Therefore, imagination is treated in this research not just as a utopian dream, but rather as a prefigurative practice through which an alternative vision is put into practice. By studying these alternative visions and practices, the research exposes path dependencies and contradictions in dominant housing imaginaries.

By adopting a multi-method qualitative approach, this research examines the transformative potential of the alternative imaginaries of squatting movements in Amsterdam. The study covers both the historical impact of squatting movements and how more recent movements interacted with the system. In sum, these movements challenge the dominant narrative of housing as a commodity. In contrast, this research reveals how squatters see housing as inherently relational, envisioning them as urban commons of care and collective governance. By studying squatting as more than a protest or illegal occupation, the research adds empirical evidence for acknowledging social movements as imaginative and transformative forces, both within and outside the formal system. By connecting these questions to Amsterdam’s policy context, the study contributes to debates on socio-political transformation. It offers practical and conceptual insights into how reimagining housing can open alternatives toward more inclusive and participatory forms of urban living.

The Netherlands is facing a significant housing shortage, with a target of 900.000 new homes by 2030. Bouwstromen have emerged as a promising response to accelerate delivery and improve affordability. However, the organizational and collaborative dynamics within Bouwstromen are not well understood. This thesis examines three active Bouwstromen: WoonST 2.0, NH Bouwstroom and Bouwstroom Haaglanden. Through a comparative case study based on interviews with key actors and project documentation, the research explores how Bouwstromen reshape actor roles, collaboration and governance in urban development. In-depth interviews and qualitative coding are applied to analyze these shifts among involved parties. Findings show that Bouwstromen transform traditional roles: housing associations evolve into coordinators of mutli-year projects within a portfolio; municipalities shift to strategic collaborators and builders step into a reactive product developers role. Early alignment and trust foster ‘no-relearning’ efficiencies and facilitate standardization at scale. Yet, challenges remain in aligning municipal processes, clarifying responsibilities and balancing standardization with site-specific flexibility. This study contributes to the understanding of programmatic housing delivery by linking governance structures to collaboration and IC method adoption. The insights provide a basis for improving permit procedures, strengthening partnerships and supporting scalable housing solutions within the Dutch urban context.

In the Netherland, the ageing society is placing an increased pressure on the already difficult housing market. Due to national ageing-in-place policies, many seniors remain in homes that no longer suit their physical, social, or care-related needs. At the same time, they hesitate to relocate due to a combination of different practical and emotional factors. While assisted living concepts offer promising alternatives, their success depends on both better alignment with the relocation process of senior and improved marketing. This thesis tries to contribute to that gap by addressing the following research question: “How can insights into push, pull and keep factors be used to optimise relocation strategies for seniors in the free rental market and enhance their assisted living experiences?”

This study applies a qualitative research approach, combining expert interviews and conducting two focus group sessions: one with current residents of assisted living housing, and another one with non-movers who seriously considered relocating. The findings reveal that relocation decisions are made after an ongoing interplay of push, pull, and keep factors. Crucially, relocation strategies must be tailored to different level of readiness. The senior that is open to relocation benefits from practical and logistical support. Conversely, hesitant seniors benefit from more emotional reassurance, reframing of assisted living narratives, and the possibility to have trial stays. Additionally, there are thing that need to be in place for both type of seniors. For instance, honouring service commitments, involving seniors in the design phase, and enhancing social infrastructure can improve the attractiveness and success of assisted living concepts for al.

The third focus group highlighted that relocation decisions may also differ by context. In urban settings, seniors placed greater weight on environmental aesthetics, proximity to family, and lifestyle opportunities. At the same time, emotional barriers such as fear of status loss could be mitigated by offering high-quality, well-designed housing that reflects their past housing achievements.

This thesis contributes to the scientific discourse by integrating the lived experiences of seniors into the analysis of senior mobility. As a result, it also offers actionable strategies for stakeholders in senior housing to create inclusive future-proof senior housing that aligns with the evolving needs and expectations of seniors.

This research explores the implementation of social sustainability in area development projects, focusing on the relations between private developers, municipalities, and housing associations in the Netherlands. Although increasingly recognised as a key pillar of sustainable development, social sustainability remains underdeveloped in practice. In particular, the operationalisation of well-being, liveability, and social equity & justice remains challenging. Advancing these aspects is essential for guiding development strategies that respond to pressing urban challenges such as housing shortages and spatial and economic inequality. Yet, a knowledge gap remains in how key actors interpret and operationalise these concepts within development processes. This research addressed that gap by examining actor relations and their influence on the translation of social sustainability goals during planning and implementation. The main research question: “How is social sustainability understood and implemented by private developers, housing associations, and municipalities in area development projects in the Netherlands?” will be addressed using a qualitative approach, combining a literature review, interviews, document analysis, based on three case studies. The research shows that social sustainability is not limited from lack of ambition, but from fragmented timelines, fixed roles, and unaligned interpretations. Integrated outcomes only emerge when actors collaborate early, share responsibility, and move beyond institutional roles toward adaptive, long-term engagement throughout the development process. Moving forward, more attention is needed for building shared understandings early in the process, rethinking financial and organisational models, and embracing the complexity of social systems alongside the built environment.

As cities across the globe grapple with rising urbanisation and housing shortages, over one billion
people now reside in informal settlements. In South Africa, the legacy of apartheid planning,
combined with systemic inefficiencies and rapid urban growth, has compounded the challenges
of providing inclusive, sustainable low-income housing. While extensive research exists across
disciplines such as architecture, political science, and economics, much of it remains siloed—
offering fragmented perspectives on an inherently complex issue.

This dissertation takes a different approach. It examines low-income housing through a
double lens: spatial design—how built form is created and how its context is developed—and
governance—the aims, actors, and instruments involved in decision making. Using the K206
housing project in Alexandra, Johannesburg, as a case study, the research explores what happens
when government plans meet residents’ lived experiences. It engages three key literature
themes of low-income housing: informal settlement upgrading, state-subsidised housing, and
incremental housing. Through interviews, surveys, and expert consultations, the research reveals
how governmental aims—such as resident-responsive design, security of tenure, and income
generation—were translated into built form, and how residents responded to and reshaped these
interventions—sometimes in unexpected ways.

The findings show that residents are not just recipients of housing policy—they actively reshape
their environments and create their own systems of living, especially when dissatisfied with the
systems they are dealt. The research highlights governance and spatial design complexities in
South Africa and makes the case for interdisciplinary approaches that centre the voices of those
most affected by housing policy.

Housing markets have produced structural inequalities evident in the unaffordability issues experienced by many households across Europe. Over the past century, housing has shifted from a domain of strong government intervention to one increasingly influenced by market forces. Today, as Europe decarbonises, not only affordability but also sustainability have become central to housing debates. This dissertation investigates how decarbonisation policies affect both housing affordability and provision. Following an essay-based structure (capita selecta), this thesis brings together studies on fiscal policy, sustainable finance, and social housing provision across various European settings. The dissertation is divided into two main parts. Part I, Affordability and Costs, employs quantitative methods to assess the economic impacts of decarbonisation on households. Part II, Provision and Finance, takes a qualitative approach to examine financing mechanisms for decarbonisation and social housing provision. While each part draws on distinct methodologies, together they provide an overview of how certain decarbonisation policies interact with housing systems at both household and structural levels. The findings show that current decarbonisation policies often favour wealthier homeowners through subsidies and tax incentives, while having a negative or mixed impact on renters, younger households, and low-income groups. To address these challenges, the thesis advocates for redistributive fiscal reforms—such as energy efficiency-linked property taxes—and stronger public institutions and regulations to guide investment towards equitable and sustainable housing provision. By placing affordability at the centre of decarbonisation policies, this dissertation aims to inform the development of transitional pathways that align both social and environmental goals.

On April 16, 2024, the Senate voted with a large majority in favour of the final closure of the Groningen gas field. The decision marked the end of six decades of gas extraction in Groningen and marked the commencement of a new chapter in the earthquake file; the post-closure phase. Beyond the enormous task of reinforcing over 27,455 addresses, there is much immaterial damage that requires recovery. As a result, the liveability of the province is under severe pressure. Given that 30% of the homes in the reinforcement task are owned by housing associations, they play a crucial role in rebuilding Groningen. To investigate their often-overlooked role, this thesis aimed to answer the question: ‘What strategies could housing associations employ to address both material and immaterial damage and enhance liveability in the earthquake-affected region of Groningen?’.

To address this question, a comprehensive literature review delved into three primary domains: the impact of earthquakes in Groningen, the role of housing associations in the Netherlands and strategies for enhancing liveability. Building upon this theoretical foundation, practical insights were gleaned through an internship at Kr8 – the partnership between 6 housing associations in the earthquake-affected area and the Huurdersplatform Aardbevingen Groningen (HPAG). During the internship, supplementary research methodologies were employed, including a data analysis of existing questionnaires and explorative talks with relevant stakeholders. Additionally, a thorough document analysis of the Woonactieplan was conducted. Towards the culmination of the research, a focus group session was convened to validate findings and chart future directions.

The research findings reveal that, despite not being legally obligated to address either material or immaterial damage, housing associations in Groningen express willingness to do so. While examples of strategies that housing associations could employ to enhance liveability can be found in literature, the answer to the main question is not so much a substantive list of strategies as it is the delineation of a process through which housing associations can discern the most appropriate strategies to employ. This thesis argues that enhancing liveability demands the adaptation of an area-based approach and collaborative efforts. The contribution of this research lies in its provision of a step-by-step guide to area-based working. While rooted in experiences from the reinforcement task, it is believed that this framework is also applicable in other contexts - Dutch or international - where liveability enhancement is required. Beyond housing associations, other entities involved in large-scale neighbourhood improvement efforts could also benefit from the guide.

The global housing affordability crisis sees European countries searching for solutions, paving the way for transnational knowledge exchange. The efforts to fulfill this potential within the housing sector and transnationally are, however, unexplored in relation to the affordable housing crisis. The goal of this thesis is to deliver lessons-learned for transdisciplinary and transnational knowledge exchange with specifically affordable housing provision in Europe. A case study will be performed on 'cost rental housing', a current measure to improve housing affordability which benefited from transnational knowledge exchange, in Ireland. Stakeholders are interviewed about practical insights, the barriers and enablers of knowledge exchange, their incentives and the methods used to facilitate it. With insights from
both practice and literature, lessons-learned are established from both the introduction of cost rental housing itself and the transdisciplinary and transnational knowledge exchange efforts.
Combined, the research ultimately delivers seven key lessons for transdisciplinary and transnational knowledge exchange with providing affordable housing in Europe.

This thesis examines the potential of small, low-carbon, (near) zero-energy dwellings as a solution that would both address sustainability challenges and answer to the growing housing shortage in North-West Europe. It adopts a multidimensional outlook that encompasses institutional, social and technical aspects surrounding the dwellings. The institutional aspect is addressed through an investigation of financial, legislative, technical and cultural barriers to the implementation and uptake of small, low-carbon, zero-energy dwellings. A context specific approach is adopted taking into account contextual peculiarities for the formulation of more refined policy suggestions. The social dimension is addressed first from the perspective of market supply through an investigation of the perceptions of housing professionals. The distinction between perceived versus actual barriers identified by housing professionals is made highlighting a potential desynchronization between policy developments and local practice. Accordingly the study calls for innovation in information dissemination between policy and local practice and between housing professionals themselves. The social dimension is then addressed from the perspective of market demand through an investigation of consumers’ current housing preferences. The assumption stating that, due to an increase in smaller, elderly, and lower-income households, current housing preferences are leaning towards smaller dwellings is refuted underlining the importance of distinguishing between smallest and smaller dwelling sizes. Lastly, the technical dimension is addressed through conducting a partial life cycle assessment that focuses on the embodied carbon of the dwellings. Both downsizing and the use of low-carbon materials such as timber are investigated as embodied carbon reduction strategies. Together, the three dimensions provide a holistic evaluation of the potential of small, low-carbon, zero-energy dwellings as a solution while addressing the complexity in reaching sustainable outcomes.

A housing shortage has been building up in the Netherlands in the last 30 years. Decreasing the housing shortage takes time, while people need a place to live now. Temporarily transforming vacant buildings into housing could reduce this need by providing the housing market with time to catch up. Can different user perspectives be included in housing design so all residents can easily make their home? A review of literature from housing studies, indoor environmental quality, architectural design and environmental psychology, for students, starters on the housing market and refugees accepted for permanent residency, indicated that using meanings of home could benefit housing design. Six factors were identified using a questionnaire that was developed to identify differences in meanings of home and what activities people engaged in, linked to indoor environmental preferences they had for those activities. Qualitative methods were used to better understand what people do to make a home. Three groups of activities were identified that reflect how home is a place built with meanings, through the use of objects, decorations, and the presence of other people. The results of a workshop with professionals indicated that meanings of home can be organised on three axes and that activities operate on different time frames (continuous, long-term, and short-term, respectively). This means that small actions, too, can contribute to creating a home, though which specific actions help someone and which do not, depend on the individual. The results can be used for housing design when architects and psychologists work together.

The Dutch population is facing a housing crisis. This crisis has slowly been affecting housing options in the whole country, but it predominantly shows problems in the densely populated urban regions. In September 2021, approximately 15000 gathered in Amsterdam at a large housing protest: the Woonprotest. This research is an explorative case study to comprehend the pluriformity of ideologies and protest motives that came together at the Woonprotest. By means of a literature review, a photo analysis and qualitative interviews, the differences in housing ideologies and protest motives of the protesters are determined. Based on a literature review, the run-up to the housing crisis is reconstructed. A photo analysis determines the different types of protest attendees. By analysing the interviews, it appears that protesters clearly have three different ideologies when it comes to housing: communism, anarchism, and solving the crisis within the current system. However, the respondents’ opinions on actual policy changes are very similar, even when it comes to radical ideas. Considering the protest motives, the respondents have equivalent purposes to protest. Protesters want to express their discontent with the housing shortage and they want something to change after the protest. The results of this research helps the movement to get a grip on its supporters. Further research is needed to understand the implications of having strong differences in ideologies within the housing movement.

The Netherlands has faced a significant housing shortage for years, with a deficit of over 300,000 dwellings. This shortage is prevalent in both the owner-occupied and rental sectors, particularly in social housing. With national average waiting times of seven years, and up to twenty years in major cities, the issue is pressing. Housing associations, governed by the national Housing Act of 2015, play a crucial role in providing affordable housing to vulnerable and low-income groups. However, there is a noticeable discrepancy in the social housing development policies between Rotterdam and Amsterdam. This research aims to understand the differences in the municipal performance agreements of these two cities, considering both municipal context and policy. The study delves into the municipal policy context, policy differences at the municipal level, and a comparative policy analysis of the performance agreements in both cities. Through in-depth interviews, the research seeks to explain the variations in the performance agreements from the perspective of municipal context and policy. The findings reveal that both the municipal policy context and the social housing policy play a fundamental role in explaining the differences in performance agreements between Amsterdam and Rotterdam. Despite operating under the same national Housing Act, the cities’ distinct social compositions, political climates, and financial capabilities have led to notable differences in their agreements. Amsterdam’s approach is characterized by a focus on tenant welfare and inclusivity, while Rotterdam adopts a more result-oriented, efficiency-driven approach, with a specific emphasis on the mid-range rental segment. The influence of umbrella organizations and the absence of a centralized tenant association in Rotterdam also contribute to the disparities. This study contributes to the understanding of municipal performance agreements in the context of social housing, providing insights that could be useful for policy development and evaluation. The methodology used in this research could also be applied to other Dutch municipalities, offering a comprehensive framework for analyzing social housing policies and performance agreements.

Housing inequality is a growing concern in our society. In recent decades, this inequality has been exacerbated by the phenomenon of housing being financialized and commodified as a means for wealth accumulation. Management of financial institutions and housing markets has become the centre of attention in policy discussion. The questions of how to promote the moral values tied to housing, such as human rights, dignity and freedom, and how to better enable people to access suitable housing have been marginalized. As a way forward, the states’ re-intervention and re-distribution policies, and the human rights-based approach to housing policies are discussed, but this thesis advocates for a more ambitious paradigm shift. By extending Amartya Sen’s capability approach to housing, the thesis argues for resetting the primary goal of housing policies as expansion of people’s capabilities for housing—expanding opportunity, ability and security to lead their valued ways of residing—beyond the distribution of monetary and material resources for housing, such as housing benefits and dwelling units. This thesis presents the theoretical foundations of this argument and proposes basic principles to guide housing policies, which can serve as a normative basis of housing debates on necessary policy actions. An essential tool to guide housing policies towards this newly proposed goal is to evaluate policy outcomes and housing affairs of people—well-being, deprivation and inequality in housing—with capability considerations. The thesis suggests how this evaluation can be done and can help policies address the inequalities in what people can do to pursue their suitable housing options and how well they are actually residing.

Recently, Chinese Public Rental Housing (PRH) provision has witnessed a shift from ‘government’ to ‘governance’: policy making shifted from government steering to mixed forms involving government, market and civic actors to pursue effective and fair policies. In the meantime, this new-era PRH governance is credited with mixed results. However, the existing studies fail to describe the mechanisms underlying this new-era governance of PRH with the rising involvement of market actors and those in civil society and whether the new-era governance is considered to be effective, achieving the objective of stability. Therefore, this PhD research aims to fill the two research gaps through building a better understanding of the PRH governance in the current Chinese context and evaluating PRH governance. To fulfil this aim, this dissertation is underpinned by a theoretical foundation from the governance perspective and adopts a mixedmethod approach with quantitative and qualitative data in the study of Chinese PRH provision. The dissertation reveals the essence of the current Chinese PRH governance by bringing forth a governance model and shows the structures and mechanisms for non-governmental actors to play a role in the governance of PRH. The dissertation also shows the perceived governance outcomes from tenants’ perspective and demonstrates two main governance challenges of Inclusionary Housing, a newly introduced instrument adopted in the Chinese PRH governance. Based on the results, this PhD research theoretically and empirically contributes to the h ture.

The Dutch government has set the goal for the Dutch housing stock to be independent of gas by 2050. The funding for the needed energy efficiency retrofits is a bottleneck in the process. Owner occupiers within condominium associations come across many barriers in the application process for funding. One of which is the lack of a well suited funding mechanism. If implemented right, building-bound financing may be the solution to the funding problems. Seeing as it is a non-existing type of funding. The following research question was used: What is needed for building-bound financing to be an operable funding for owner occupiers in Dutch condominium associations to support energy performance retrofits? With use of the Governance Assessment Tool and a stakeholder analysis, the current situation of condominium associations with respect to sustainability policy and funding are analysed. From there backcasting is used to depict what changes are needed for successful implementation of building-bound financing for owner occupiers in condominiums. A institutional structure along with a list of coordination problems is provided, to depict what is has to be arranged for building-bound financing. It was found that the problem entails more than a new funding mechanism is able to solve. Furthermore, it was found that an opt-out option for funding is also a possible solution for the problems found. Further research is needed into the operation of the structure and the societal support for it.

The global population is ageing at a rapid pace, accordingly many countries implement ageing in place policies to prevent unmanageable growth of costs of institutionalised care settings. Like many other countries, the Dutch government also shifted towards ageing in place policies to reduce the costs of institutionalised care settings. Ageing in place is aimed at allowing the elderly to live independently and stay part of the community. Therefore, policies and services are increasingly aimed at supporting the elderly in ‘place’, where ‘place’ consists of the dwelling and its surrounding environment. However, the current ‘place’ may not always be the best option for the elderly to receive care and support in order to age in place. The playing field of housing and care has made a significant transition since the decentralisation of the General Act on Exceptional Medical Expenses. Due to the changes in national policy and legislation, the binary perspective on housing for the elderly, in the conventional market or traditional institutions, has been expanded to include a potential spectrum of housing models to age in place. By disconnecting supportive functions, such as housing, care and welfare, from the traditional institutions, a new playing field has arisen for housing models to age in place between the traditional family home and the traditional institutions. Furthermore, public and individual responsibilities have shifted. The municipality has been given the responsibility to develop a strategy on ageing in place and the elderly have become responsible for choosing a 'suitable' place to age. However, municipalities, elderly and other stakeholders have their own perspective on the definition of a suitable ‘place’ to age, therefore municipalities, elderly and stakeholders have their ‘own language’ with regard to housing models to age in place. This leads to a so-called ‘dialogue of the deaf’ during the process of development and realisation of housing models to age in place. The new playing field of housing and care grants the opportunity to develop new supportive ‘places’. In order to provide supportive ‘place’ for the elderly, municipalities are able to proactively facilitate stakeholders in the development and realisation of housing models to age in place. This study offers an instrument that supports the coordination task of Dutch municipalities in order to develop and realise housing models to age in place.The basic functioning of the framework is as follows. The combination of the residential object and the variables in the inter- and external dimension reflect what a housing model to age in place entails. Within each variable, several options or combination of options are available to define the variable, where the prerequisites can be predefined options that need to be included in the model when developing a new housing model to age in place. The diverse variables are able to ‘build’ a variety of housing models within the new spectrum of ageing in place, therefore the variables are labelled as building blocks. Based on this study, three applications of the framework have been defined in order to support the coordination task of Dutch municipalities in order to develop and realise housing models to age in place.The first application of the framework is focussed on structurally collecting data on preferences of the elderly on local scale in relation to housing models to age in place. The framework can be used as a tool to gather data of the preferences of the elderly in relation to housing models to age in place. Findings based on the data collected on the preferences of the elderly in relation to housing models to age in place can be used to define prerequisites, which can be taken into account when developing a housing model to age in place. By exposing the demand for housing models to age in place through the use of the framework, the municipality is provided with data that can be used for both housing and ageing in place policy. The second application of the framework is aimed at creating a frame of reference for municipalities on housing models to age in place. Currently, the new spectrum of ageing in place is mostly unexplored and therefore municipalities have an incomplete frame of reference on housing models to age in place within their municipality borders. Therefore, the framework can be used to enhance the frame of reference on housing models to age in place by analysing existing housing models within municipality borders. The framework offers a ‘template’ for municipalities to structurally organise information on existing housing models to age in place.The final application of the framework focuses on the guidance of stakeholders in relation to the discussion on what a supportive ‘place’ is for the elderly. The framework provides a starting point for ‘shared language’ on housing models to age in place in order to guide the dialogue between stakeholders involved with the development of housing models to age in place. The framework can be used as a guidance in order to break the ‘dialogue of the deaf’ that frequently occurs between stakeholders during the development of housing models to age in place. This application of the framework can be compared to a structured interview with the same questions asked in the same order each interview. In this case, the same building blocks are discussed in the same order each consultation round between stakeholders. Through repeating the process the occurrence of the ‘dialogue of the deaf’ will decrease. The research presents several recommendations. One of the recommendations is focused on bridging the domains of different stakeholders. It became apparent that stakeholders within the playing field of housing and care think too ‘compartmentalised’. While the framework offers an instrument to bridge the domains, it still requires a cultural change to bridge the domains. This means that the stakeholders have to show ‘entrepreneurship and guts’ to successfully develop new housing models to age in place. The municipality will have to take a proactive and facilitating role in order to stimulate stakeholders to ‘look over their own fence’.

A case study in three Dutch municipalities on the effects and effectiveness of the policy instrument of local performance agreements for housing policy in the light of the revised Housing Act

During the last decade, two developments on the Dutch housing market have received a lot of attention. One of these developments concerns the recovering house prices and specifically the strong price rises in cities. The other development is related to the growth of the private rental sector and particularly the buy-to-let market. This market consists of the private rental dwellings owned by reasonably small private landlords. These landlords predominantly buy owner-occupied dwellings to rent them out, hence the name buy-to-let. The growing buy-to-let market and the recent price rises have often been linked to each other. Some people claim that the buy-to-let landlords are driving up the house prices. Nevertheless, the relation between these two developments has not been properly studied yet for the Netherlands. Consequently, the objective of this study is to gain more insight in the Dutch buy-to-let market in general and specifically the relation between this market and the regional house price development. Mostly quantitative research methods are applied to answer this research question since especially quantitative information on the Dutch buy-to-let market is missing. House price models have for instance been made for Groningen, Breda and Zoetermeer. The research shows that the Dutch buy-to-let market is still quite small as the buy-to-let dwellings only comprise 5% of the total Dutch housing stock. By comparing the house price development of different municipalities with a varying share of buy-to-let, it can be seen that the recent house price increases are on average stronger for the municipalities with a high share of buy-to-let dwellings. It is however possible that these stronger increases are caused by other factors than buy-to-let. When comparing the results of the three regional house price models no big differences in the drivers are found. The results show that the determinants for the house price development are, despite the varying share of buy-to-let dwellings, in general the same for the three municipalities. Furthermore, a buy-to-let indicator could not explain some of the remaining unexplained variance. Based on these results, it can be concluded that none of the results actually point at an inflationary effect of buy-to-let investments. However, because only three municipalities were studied, no general conclusions can be drawn and the possible inflationary effect of buy-to-let landlords cannot be completely excluded.

Traditional neo-classical economic theories are failing to explain the current situation in the Dutch housing market. There is a high demand for newly built owner-occupied dwellings, but the production is not increasing as quickly as expected. New Institutional Economics is offering explanations for this situation. The institutions in the development sector changed during the real estate crisis, which caused a disruption of the governance structures. There are still thresholds, even in this favourable time, to form new development alliances. Those thresholds are caused by serval reasons, like financing issues, capacity problems and an increased risk awareness of all the involved parties. Relations should be reinvented, and incentives for market parties should be created to invest early in the development process.