Perovskite/silicon (PS) technology includes three main configurations: two-terminal (2T), three-terminal (3T), and four-terminal (4T). Previous studies have made various comparisons between these configurations, significantly advancing our understanding of these devices. While these studies mostly focus on simulations on cell level, we perform bandgap energy ((Formula presented.)) optimization at the module level for different configurations under outdoor conditions. Using opto-electrical simulations, we predict the energy yield of each module at four geographical locations, with varying values of (Formula presented.). The optimal (Formula presented.) for the 2T, 3T, and 4T modules are 1.62, 1.80, and 1.82 eV, respectively. We also perform a loss analysis to explore the differences in power losses among the configurations. These loss differences can be attributed to the configurations having different optimal (Formula presented.) values (affecting the thermalization losses) or different module designs (affecting the interconnection losses). Among all losses, mismatch losses play the most critical role in optimizing the bandgap. Overall, all optimized configurations have similar energy yields (all differences within 1.5%) across all locations. Finally, we compare the robustness of the different configurations against different scenarios of perovskite degradation. Our results show that the 4T module is the least sensitive to degradation in the perovskite subcell.

Offshore floating photovoltaics (OFPVs) emerge as a promising solution to overcome land constraints associated with inland renewable energy deployment. However, as OFPVs are still a developing technology, several performance-related uncertainties persist. The reduction in energy yield caused by wave-induced losses (WIL) is one such critical uncertainty that needs to be understood, quantified and minimised. To address this need, this work introduces a physics-based modelling framework that couples validated hydrodynamic simulations with opto-electrical analysis to accurately estimate WIL. An extensive sensitivity analysis is then carried out, performing over 100 simulations by systematically varying both design and environmental parameters. The results show that WIL ranges between 1%–30% on an hourly basis and exhibits a nonlinear dependence on both parameter groups. The resulting dataset is then used to develop S [Figure presented] IFT 1.0 - a surrogate model capable of predicting WIL across a wide range of design and operating conditions, achieving an average absolute RMSE of 3% relative to the physics-based model. The insights from S [Figure presented] IFT 1.0 are finally used to provide practical measures that minimise WIL at a system design level. Overall, this work provides a complete pathway to model, quantify, predict, and minimise WIL, promoting confident and scalable OFPV deployment.

Advanced and emerging photovoltaic (PV) technologies play a crucial role in meeting the increasing global energy demand sustainably. Simulations are essential for predicting system behavior and improving our understanding of complex PV architectures. This work extends an existing modeling framework designed for novel PV systems, offering a modular and flexible workflow suitable for diverse research applications. The framework computes PV performance from first-principles physics, removing the need for module datasheets. It comprises two pre-processing steps and six simulation steps. The first steps determine the optical behavior of the modules, followed by irradiance modeling and temperature calculations. The final steps evaluate the electrical characteristics and the conversion to alternating current at the full-system level. The framework incorporates detailed energy loss analysis and includes advanced features such as partial shading, reverse-bias effects, and photon recycling. Two applications demonstrate its capabilities: comparing module configurations in urban settings and optimizing multi-junction PV system design. Results show that Smart modules enhance shade resilience, delivering approximately (Formula presented.) higher energy yields. Additionally, the optimal perovskite bandgap for perovskite/silicon tandem devices is found to be 1.60–1.62 eV. These outcomes highlight the framework's value for future PV system research and development. The developed software can be found at: https://github.com/YBlom1999/PVMD_Toolbox.

Accurate prediction of optical performance in solar cells with multiscale-textured interfaces is essential for optimizing light management in next-generation photovoltaics. For the first time, a systematic validation of two complementary modeling approaches is carried out on experimentally fabricated thin-film silicon (TF Si) solar cells: rigorous coupled-wave analysis (RCWA), offering a full electromagnetic solution but constrained by boundary conditions, and a ray optics model, operating in the refractive regime. The study involves two device architectures: an a-Si:H single-junction cell on commercial Asahi VU-type glass with random nanotextures, and an nc-Si:H single-junction cell on novel micro-periodic honeycomb-textured glass developed in-house. Simulated and measured external quantum efficiency (EQE) and total front reflection losses (1-R) are benchmarked using the root mean squared error (RMSE). The ray model shows deviations of only 2%–6%, comparable to RCWA, while reducing computation time from 1 week to less than 30 min. Applied to an a-Si:H/nc-Si:H tandem device on honeycomb-textured glass, ray optics reproduced the optical response with spectral deviations below 6% and photocurrent mismatch under 0.2 mA/cm2. These findings uniquely establish ray optics, when combined with accurate optical constants and realistic interface morphologies, as a reliable and computationally efficient predictive tool broadly transferable to thin-film technologies, including perovskites.

As crystalline silicon (c-Si) solar cells approach their theoretical efficiency limit, the perovskite/silicon (PerSi) tandem technology offers a promising solution for further improving the efficiency of photovoltaic (PV) modules. However, as perovskite cells are facing stability issues, it is unclear whether PerSi modules will have a larger lifetime energy yield (LEY) than c-Si modules. In this work, we present a novel methodology to simulate the LEY of PerSi tandem devices, accounting for environmental stress factor-dependent degradation across four different climates. Our approach combines a physics-based analytical degradation model for components shared with c-Si modules and a scenario-based degradation model for the perovskite top cell. This method enables us to identify the tolerable degradation rate (k_tol) of the perovskite cell under different scenarios and climatic conditions. We find that k_tol is lowest when degradation occurs in the short-circuit current, reaching a minimum value of 1.2% per year in Delft (the Netherlands). Additionally, we demonstrate that k_tol inversely depends on the module lifetime, reaching values up 7.6% per year in Lagos (Nigeria). Moreover, we show that module efficiency (η_mod) significantly impacts k_tol. For instance, increasing η_mod from 28.0% to 32.9% raises k_tol by approximately 50%. Additionally, we propose a simplified model that can predict k_tol without the computationally intensive simulations, which has a root-mean-square error of 0.34% per year. Lastly, environmental impact assessments reveal that PerSi modules are more sustainable in all impact categories when the degradation rate is 80% of k_tol for LEY.

At standard test conditions (STC), the performance of photovoltaic modules is compared using efficiency. As irradiance and module temperature fluctuate over the year and STC efficiency does not assess the performance of the module accurately in real world conditions, the annual energy yield is used instead as performance metric. Perovskite/silicon tandem solar cells are being massively researched and sought after in PV industry for their efficiency well above 34% with further growth perspective. In this work, to evaluate and compare performance of different perovskite/silicon tandem photovoltaic (PV) modules based on different bottom cell technologies, we use a hybrid modelling approach. Such approach, combining experimentally obtained and simulated current-voltage curves, flexibly predicts the annual energy yield of novel tandem PV modules via our PVMD toolbox and enables their optimization in any location. In particular, considering (i) mono- and bi-facial architectures, (ii) 2-terminal and 4-terminal module configurations, and (iii) silicon heterojunction or novel poly-SiOx passivated c-Si solar bottom cells, we compare the annual energy yield of different perovskite/silicon tandem modules and we optimize their performance in different locations with respect to different perovskite thickness and bandgaps

The integration of self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) in perovskite (PVK) solar cells often presents processing challenges that can hinder their industrial uptake. To address these limitations and enhance the manufacturability of the SAMs/PVK interface, a co-deposition strategy was recently developed, wherein both SAMs and PVK films are formed simultaneously in a single step. As the fundamental principles governing the SAM/PVK co-deposition process remain insufficiently explored, here we selected four commercially available SAMs molecules─MeO-4PACz, Me-4PACz, Me-2PACz, and 2PACz─and we mixed them based on their molecular size, polarity, and hydrophobicity, forming pairs. The co-deposition process of mixed-SAMs with MAPbI3precursor solutions was studied, and corresponding solar cell devices were fabricated. Among the three combinations tested, the MeO-4PACz + Me-4PACz one yields the most promising results, and a power conversion efficiency of approximately 19% was achieved without any additional passivation strategies. Our findings reveal that the co-deposition process of mixed-SAMs is primarily influenced by the interplay between molecular size and polarity. The binding strength of co-deposited mixed SAMs to the In2O3:Sn (ITO) substrate is largely dictated by their solvation behavior in the PVK precursor-DMF:DMSO solvent system. This conclusion is supported by quantum chemistry calculations and further corroborated by surface, structural, and compositional analysis.

Recent conversion efficiency breakthroughs in double-junction (tandem) perovskite/crystalline silicon solar cells demand advanced opto-thermo-electrical simulations, that are critical for translating laboratory results into realistic photovoltaic module and system performance. A holistic framework is here developed and presented, combining cell-level simulations, spectral analysis, PV module and PV system modelling. After validating the deployed physics models against measured cells and modules, hourly spectral irradiances for Delft, the Netherlands, and Catania, Italy, are generated and clustered into representative “blue-rich” and “red-rich” spectra. The effects of spectral variations on the current-matching and energy yield of tandem modules are quantified. Realistic module architectures are simulated, integrating dynamic temperature and spectrum data. Temperature coefficients are derived as a function of both irradiance and module temperature, significantly improving upon traditional indoor-derived values. Results show that standard indoor-derived coefficients under-/overestimate values in realistic conditions, highlighting the ultimate need for location-specific power matrixes. This study offers a robust pathway to predict tandem module energy yields across seasons and climates, supporting optimized design choices for industrial production and future PV installations.

Bifacial perovskite/silicon solar cells can combine the advantages of tandem technology (high efficiencies) and bifacial modules (additional received irradiance from the rear) to increase the energy yield of photovoltaic (PV) systems further. In literature, it has already been shown that for two-terminal tandems this would require a lower bandgap energy (E_g) for the perovskite cell, as the rear irradiance increases the current in the bottom cell creating a current mismatch, if this is not considered during optimization. This work expands on bifacial two-terminal tandem optimization by considering aspects not included before. Besides the E_g, the thickness (d) of the perovskite is also optimized, as this also affects the current matching. Additionally, this work studies the trends in different energy losses of the PV module to better understand what affects the optimal perovskite cell. Our simulations show that the optimal E_g is 1.61–1.65 eV and the optimal d is 650–750 nm, which agrees with the observations in literature. The optimal E_g and d are mostly a trade-off between mismatch and thermalization losses, meaning that the mismatch losses should not be fully minimized. Additionally, the irradiance from the rear side is converted less efficiently than the front side irradiance due to larger thermalization and reflection losses. Therefore, the energy yield of bifacial tandem modules, compared to monofacial tandem ones, only increases for large ground albedo. Finally, our results show that the bifacial tandems have over a 25% gain in energy yield compared to bifacial single junction modules and up to 5% gain compared to monofacial tandem modules.

In the quest for advancing photovoltaic efficiency, the adoption of multijunction solar cell architectures has emerged as a promising approach. Perovskite/silicon double-junction solar cells have already achieved efficiencies surpassing 33%, exceeding the theoretical efficiency limit for single-junction devices. To enhance efficiency even further, exploring perovskite/perovskite/silicon (PPS) triple-junction solar cells seems a logical next step, as they offer the potential to further reduce thermalization losses and achieve even higher efficiencies. This study delves into the potential of various configurations of PPS modules, exploring different subcell interconnections. Initially, we present an optoelectrical model to simulate the performance of these devices, incorporating both luminescence coupling and cell-to-module losses. This enables us to optimize the bandgap energy of the top and middle perovskite subcells under both standard test conditions (STC) and outdoor conditions. Our analysis reveals that the addition of a perovskite subcell can improve the STC efficiency up to 9%–13%. This gain in STC performance also translates into a similar gain in energy yield, meaning that triple-junction devices produce 8%–14% more electricity than their double-junction reference devices.

Positive Energy Districts (PEDs) are integral to achieving sustainable urban development by enhancing energy self-sufficiency and reducing carbon emissions. This paper explores energy balance calculations in four diverse case study districts within different climatic conditions—Fiat Village in Settimo Torinese (Italy), Großschönau (Austria), Beursplain in Amsterdam (Netherlands), and Lunca Pomostului in Reşiţa (Romania)—as part of the SIMPLY Positive project. Each district faces unique challenges, such as outdated infrastructure or heritage protection, which we address through tailored strategies including building renovations and the integration of renewable energy systems. Additionally, we employ advanced simulation methodologies to assess energy performance. Simulation results highlight the significance of innovative technologies like photovoltaic-thermal (PVT) systems, application of demand-side actions, and flexible grid usage. Furthermore, mobility assessments and resident-driven initiatives demonstrate the critical role of community engagement in reducing carbon footprints. This study underscores the adaptability of PED frameworks across varied urban contexts and provides actionable insights for scaling similar strategies globally, supporting net-zero energy targets.

This study investigates the transparent conductive oxides (TCOs) as front contact for thin-film solar cell applications by developing a bilayer design that decouples the optical and electrical functionalities. The bilayer front contact structure combines hydrogenated indium oxide (IOH) and non-intentionally doped zinc oxide (ZnO) materials. This design achieves enhanced optoelectrical properties with a mobility of 120 cm²/Vs and a carrier density of 1.97·10¹⁹ cm^-3. Notably, the bilayer outperforms the expected average of its constituent layers in both transparency and conductivity, reflecting the benefits of optimized layer architecture. When integrated as the front electrode in a hydrogenated nanocrystalline silicon (nc-Si:H) solar cell, the IOH/ZnO bilayer yields a fill factor of 64.56 % and a power conversion efficiency of 7.85 %. When using an ITO front contact, the nc-Si:H solar cell reveals a fill factor of 56.27 % and an efficiency of 6.80 %. By successfully decoupling optical and electrical properties, the optimized IOH/ZnO bilayer offers a significant advancement over single-layer TCO configurations, presenting an innovative pathway for enhanced performance in thin-film solar cell technology.

Research into the impact of innovative sustainable energy experiments and demonstrations is crucial to diversifying, scaling up, and accelerating the sustainable energy transition. Although there is vast research into sustainable energy experiments and demonstrations, research literature offers a fragmented collection of findings. A coherent overview of themes and insights regarding the transformative impact of innovative sustainable energy experiments and demonstrations on sustainable energy systems from the past, present, and near future is lacking and necessary to increase experiments and demonstrations' impact on the sustainable energy transition. The research in this study fills this knowledge gap by providing such an overview and yields novel insights into the organized function and impact of experiments and demonstrations. It spans a broad spectrum of sustainable energy technologies, the empirical domains where these are invented, developed and applied, and the stakeholders involved. The overview is the outcome of a Delphi study in which the insights of 47 international scientific research experts in sustainable energy experiments and demonstrations are bundled and explained. This study presents a thematic overview of the significant insights regarding past and current sustainable energy experiments and demonstrations and outlines a research agenda for the future. Policymakers, practitioners, and scientists can leverage this to inform their sustainable energy policies, business strategies, and research programs.

The authors have operated a few minor modifications in response to helpful feedback received post-publication from the readership. These updates are solely intended to clarify certain aspects of the article and enhance its overall readability. The first update concerns the caption of Fig. 7, which has been revised to improve clarity for readers through the addition of explanatory notes. The second update pertains to the Technology Readiness Level (TRL) of a technology developer in Table 3, which has been updated based on the latest provided information. As a derivative of this change, Fig. 8(a), that is a visual representation of Table 3, has also been updated to reflect the revised TRLs. Additionally, the note in the caption of Table 3 has been slightly modified for improved clarity. These modifications do not affect the outcomes, analysis, or conclusions of the article and are solely intended to improve clarity for readers and consistency with respect to most recent information.[Figure presented] Fig. 7: Proposed classification framework. FPV designs compiled and classified based on research publications and designs used by technology providers. Note: (i) each reported archetype can be technically made modular with companies deploying different (proprietary) solutions for upscaling the surface coverage of the farm; (ii) the adjective “large” in the acronym ”LRP” is related to the area of the floater as a surface that is at least bigger than one PV module. Table 3: TRLs of different FPV archetypes hosted by different organisations. Note: This table shows the TRLs based on publicly available information and represents a snapshot in time. The TRLs are subject to change over time and may not reflect the most up-to-date values.[Figure presented][Figure presented] Fig. 8: Current technology readiness landscape. (a) The trend of TRLs for inland and offshore solar deployments, (b) number of organisations working on inland and offshore solar deployment. Data derived from Table 3.

This study investigates the influence of reactive sputtering gas composition, specifically the oxygen-to-argon (O2/Ar) and hydrogen-to-argon (H2/Ar) ratios, on the optoelectrical and structural properties of fluorine-doped tin oxide (FTO) and undoped tin dioxide (SnO2) thin films deposited at room temperature (RT). Through systematic variation of O2 and H2 content in the sputtering atmosphere, gas-phase composition is correlated with key performance metrics, including optical transmittance, sheet resistance, carrier density, and mobility, both before and after postdeposition annealing (PDA) at 400 °C in a nitrogen atmosphere. An optimal O2/Ar ratio of 0.3–0.4% achieves the best optoelectrical trade-off in FTO, yielding a minimum sheet resistance (468 Ω/sq) and high mobility (13.7 cm2/(V s)). In SnO2 films, increasing oxygen improves optical transparency but reduces conductivity, while hydrogen incorporation at fixed 1% O2/Ar enhances transparency and lowers sheet resistance in the as deposited state. These effects are attributed to defect passivation rather than changes in oxidation state, as supported by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy results. Ambipolar conduction observed in the as deposited films transitions to stable n-type behavior after PDA, highlighting the role of thermal treatment. Although RT sputtered SnO2-based films do not yet match the performance of high-temperature grown benchmarks, these findings demonstrate that careful tuning of the sputtering gas composition enables scalable, thermally compatible, and cost-effective fabrication of transparent conducting electrodes and transport layers in photovoltaic applications.

The uncertainty surrounding land availability for renewable energy deployment is a growing concern, creating a strong need for alternative solutions. In recent years, offshore floating photovoltaic (OFPV) systems have shown great promise in meeting global energy demands without competing for land resources. With ambitious targets like 3 GW in The Netherlands by 2030 and global projections exceeding 20 GW, OFPVs are emerging as a key solution at this critical juncture in energy transition. The significance of this technology is also reflected in the 95% increase in research outputs over the past five years. Despite this growth, insights remain scattered, with limited understanding of both the technology and performance. This review fills this gap by providing a comprehensive overview of OFPV systems, addressing both technical and performance aspects. Specifically, the objectives are to: provide detailed information about technology readiness levels, real-world deployments, and a new classification matrix to categorize different OFPV designs; identify key processes like dynamic motion, cooling, optical changes, and long-term degradation that impact energy yield (EY); and quantify the impact of each process on EY based on reported data. The findings reveal that dynamic motion (-0.4% to -15%) and long-term degradation (-2% to -20%) generally reduce EY, while cooling (-4% to +20%) and optical effects (-40% to +5%) can enhance or reduce EY depending on operating conditions. While these insights are crucial, several challenges remain, with the most pressing being the need to standardize measurement and modeling techniques for EY prediction to propel OFPVs towards large-scale commercialization.

In this study, a modeling methodology is presented for evaluating the performance of a hybrid system integrating different types of solar collectors, namely photovoltaic (PV), glazed flat plate solar thermal (ST) and unglazed photovoltaic-thermal (PVT) collectors to harvest solar energy. Further, the system is integrated with a seasonal storage that is an aquifer thermal energy storage (ATES) system, a heat exchanger and a heat pump (HP) to provide heating, including space heating (SH), domestic hot water (DHW), as well as cooling. The investigation considers various operational modes depending on the climate conditions and building characteristics. The study focuses on comparison of solar collectors in realistic scenarios, examining heating type and insulation levels. Real energy consumption data considering five residential buildings in Amsterdam is employed for the analysis. Annual simulations for the considered buildings are conducted for SH and DHW coverage, along with cooling. The results indicate that ATES combined with glazed ST collectors demonstrates superior heat storage while HP with PV/ST combination and floor heating achieves an average coefficient of performance (COP) of 6.09 for both SH and DHW. In contrast, HP combined with PVTs shows the lowest performance, with a COP of around 5 when used with radiator heating. Additionally, majority of the demand is covered using HP storage mode with seasonal storage and HP while building insulation plays a crucial role.

Increasing the operating lifetime of photovoltaic (PV) modules is a key factor in further reducing their levelized cost of electricity. Analytical degradation models typically use the external relative humidity (RH) as a stress factor, rather than the moisture concentration inside the module. This study presents a Finite Element Method (FEM) model, built in COMSOL Multiphysics, to simulate the moisture ingress inside a PV module. We explore the effects of different encapsulant and backsheet materials, as well as various climatic conditions, on moisture penetration. Overall, the impact of the climate has a larger impact on the moisture ingress than the choice of material, implying that the PV module design should be adjusted for different climates. As FEM simulations are computationally intensive, we also present an analytical model, based on empirically determined characteristics, to simulate the moisture ingress. This reconstruction can be done with a deviation lower than 0.05 for all conditions. Finally, our findings indicate that the relative moisture content (RMC) within the module serves as a more accurate stress factor than outdoor RH. Degradation rates over time found in literature are captured more accurately when deploying RMC.

Two terminal (2T) perovskite/copper-indium-gallium-selenide (CIGS) tandem solar cells combine high conversion efficiency with lightweight flexible substrates which can decrease manufacturing and installation costs. In order to improve the power conversion efficiency of these tandem solar cells, the use of advanced simulation tools is crucial to estimate the loss mechanisms. In this regard, most of the available simulation works on tandem solar cells are oriented to minimize optical losses and assuming simplifications for the electrical simulations in particular in the top and bottom cell interconnection at the so-called tunnel recombination junction (TRJ) neglecting the inner physics of the complete tandem device. Therefore, the effect of charge exchange mechanism between top and bottom soler cells on the external parameters of a tandem devices is not fully understood yet. In this work, we present an experimentally validated opto-electrical model based on the fundamental semiconductor equations for the study of loss mechanisms of a reference perovskite/CIGS solar cell. Different from other numerical works, because our simulation platform includes the fundamental working mechanisms of the layers comprising the TRJ, we can properly calculate the losses related to it. We firstly present the calibration and validation of our opto-electrical model with respect to three fabricated reference solar cells: top cell only, bottom cell only and tandem device. Then, we use the calibrated model to evaluate main loss mechanisms affecting the baseline tandem device. Finally, we use the model to propose a roadmap for the optimization of monolithic perovskite/CIGS tandem solar cells.

This paper presents dynamic air-based models of a hybrid photovoltaic-thermal (PVT) collector. The models are developed with the aim of estimating the temperature of the collector components and therefore of estimating the annual generation of electrical energy and thermal energy outputs, by using actual climate data of six different cities based on Köppen-Geiger-Photovoltaic (KGPV) climate zones. The results show that the unglazed type collector has the best PV cooling while the dual channel collector has the best air heating among air-based PVT collectors. The results also indicate that the use of additional fluid enhances both electrical and thermal performance. The dynamic models are validated by comparison with results found in the literature. The paper also discusses a novel bi-fluid PVT system combined with a storage tank and an H-infinity based robust controller that can handle uncertainties. The results of the bi-fluid system show that the fraction of energy demand covered by the system is highly dependent on climate conditions and the collector's surface area. It was found that for a small-scale house (standard for four people), the proposed system can cover more than 70% annual domestic hot water demand for cities with high solar irradiance and 32% for a city with low solar irradiance.