This research explores various mobility measures in the battle with excessive nitrogen deposition. It comprises a case study research of two study areas in the Netherlands with Natura2000. By employing the MOVE Meter as a quickscan tool with traffic modelling, effective local mobility measures have been identified. Establishing a no-entry zone emerged as the most effective measure for the reduction of nitrogen deposition due to its proximity to natural areas, highlighting the significance of spatial factors. This research also revealed modelling constraints related to the implementation of emission factors in traffic modelling.

Road pricing is increasingly proposed as a policy tool to address urban challenges such as congestion, pollution, and infrastructure funding. However, public acceptance of such policies often hinges on perceptions of fairness, particularly regarding cost distribution and revenue allocation. This study investigates how Dutch citizens perceive the fairness and acceptability of road pricing schemes, with a focus on revenue redistribution strategies. The knowledge gap lies in the limited understanding of how the Dutch public perceives the fairness and acceptability of such policies, particularly concerning fairness dimensions, revenue allocation strategies, and socio-demographic influences. Using a three-stage methodology—literature review, expert interviews, and a public survey—this research explores key fairness dimensions, including procedural, distributive, horizontal, vertical, and geographical equity. Findings reveal that fairness perceptions are shaped by factors such as car ownership, residential context, and transparency in communication. Distance-based and emission-based pricing models are generally perceived as fairest, particularly by non-car owners. Preferences for revenue use, such as reinvestment in public transport or tax reductions, significantly influence acceptance. Car owners tend to perceive road pricing policies, including distance-based, emission-based, and congestion pricing, as less fair compared to non-car owners, who generally view these schemes more positively. Moreover, non-car owners show stronger support for allocating revenues to public transport and tax reductions, while car owners prefer investments in road infrastructure. The study highlights the importance of transparent communication, inclusive policy design, and visible societal benefits in fostering public support. By developing a conceptual model, this research provides theoretical insights and practical recommendations for equitable and publicly acceptable road pricing policies in the Netherlands and beyond.

When considering elderly individuals in the context of transportation, qualitative research seems to focus rather on mobility and the problems related than on the actual achievement of access. Additionally, certain bias and misconceptions about this diverse group still influences accessibility studies for elderly. This paper therefore explores the accessibility challenges faced by elderly individuals, particularly focusing on urban environments like Rotterdam. Interviews in a semi-structured format using the approach of microstories were conducted in May 2024 among elderly residents of Rotterdam, aged 67 and above. The Capability Approach was used as a framework to categorise the findings of these in-depth interviews. This study with its findings underlines the inherently heterogeneity of this group. Further it presents barriers as well as enablers of accessibility for this group and how this influences the way participants move and access activities within their city. These findings show how important it is to develop specific policies not just for ‘the elderly’ but for various sub-groups of them, as they show very different characteristics and abilities. Furthermore it challenges the typical view at accessibility, usually simplified by the land use and transportation system and time or distance-based thresholds, and whether these are really usable for this group.

Global warming has increased societal awareness and the use of renewable energy, leading to the gradual replacement of fossil fuel vehicles with electric vehicles (EVs). To earn revenue, reduce electricity outages, increase grid stability, and incentivize the switch to EVs, parked EVs can discharge electricity into the grid through Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) technology.

Transport hubs like airports are ideal for V2G projects due to their many parking spots and long parking durations. To determine financial feasibility, Cost-Benefit Analysis is a commonly used tool to compare two situations or cases. However, there are no CBA studies done on V2G in transport hubs like airports, presenting a significant literature gap.

This study hence analyzes the financial feasibility of a V2G project at Schiphol Airport using Financial Cost Benefit Analysis (FCBA) and risk analysis. The study aims to determine the conditions under which the project is commercially feasible by looking at the Benefit-to-Cost ratio, and at associated risks that might impact the success of such a project.

The analysis covers a seven-year period from January 2024 to December 2030 and is based on profit maximization theory. Key costs include V2G chargers and fees paid to EV owners, while benefits include revenue from electricity sales and carbon credits. The study compares a Base Case of expanding unidirectional EV charging with a Project Case of implementing bidirectional V2G charging. Results indicate that frequency regulation provides a Benefit-to-Cost ratio greater than one, making it the most viable method for generating revenue. Falling charger costs and a minimum V2G utilization rate are found to be crucial for the project’s financial feasibility.

The conducted risk analysis identifies potential challenges and propose mitigation strategies. The main risks include the potential unwillingness of grid operators to pay for FFR services and low adoption rates of V2G among EV users at Schiphol Airport. To mitigate these risks, the study suggests collaborative efforts with grid operators, awareness campaigns to educate EV users, and government support to incentivize V2G adoption. Given that the project's financial outlay is less than 1% of Schiphol Airport's annual infrastructure budget, the study concludes that the project is financially viable despite the identified risks.

Future research areas include using proprietary data from Schiphol Airport to enhance the accuracy of the study, particularly regarding parking and charging patterns of EVs. This research provides valuable insights into the V2G ecosystem as it is the first time a cost-benefit analysis is being conducted for a V2G project at a transport hub. It supports V2G’s application at transport hubs and paves the way for future real-life projects.

Recent research studies have been focused on the adoption of shared cars and mobility hubs separately. Which is why there exists a knowledge gap regarding the influence of a mobility hub on the adoption of shared cars. This qualitative research study aims to fill the knowledge gap by answering the main research question: To what extent could a mobility hub play a role in the adoption of shared cars located at the mobility hub? Multiple angles had to be researched as unilateral answering the main research question was not possible. Therefore, a literature study provides insight in which aspects that are related to the use of a shared car could be influenced by a mobility hub (sub question 1). Next, expert interviews contribute to the knowledge regarding the mutual influences between mobility hubs and shared cars (sub question 2). Finally, a case study captures what stimulates residents to use a shared car at their nearby mobility hub (sub question 3).

In the extensive literature study 50 relevant articles were collected. The Thematic Content Analysis (TCA) that followed identified reoccurring themes. This resulted in subthemes that are related to: financial aspects; functional requirements; personal requirements; aspects of the journey; the attitude of potential users; psychological influences; challenging characteristics of potential users and aspects of a mobility hub. By analysing their influence, it became apparent that the identified themes (i.e. the independent variables) have a causal relationship with shared car usage (i.e. the dependent variable) and that certain aspects of a mobility hub (i.e. the moderator variable) could influence this relationship. These relationships have been presented in a conceptual model. Based on the influence of the identified subthemes, suggestions have been made for the guidelines that a mobility hub should fulfil in order to influence these relationships. By fulfilling the guidelines, a mobility hub can be developed in such a way that it considers the tangible and intangible aspects potential users value to attract more potential users to the hub and lower the barrier of using a shared car located at the mobility hub. Therefore, this qualitative research study showed that there are indeed factors of a mobility hub that can influence the adoption of shared cars located at the hub.

\chapter{Summary}
The uptake of electric and plug-in hybrid vehicles in the Netherlands progresses slowly despite their importance for sustainable mobility. With 2030 zero-emission targets approaching, this thesis offers a unique perspective from within the Dutch automotive sector. It analyzes how companies view and address the challenges of this transition, providing an in-depth look at corporate strategies.

This study uses a mixed-method approach, combining a literature review, desk research, formal interviews, informal meetings, and observations during an internship at Pon, a leading automotive importer. Insights from this unique position offer a direct view of how companies adapt their strategies to a complex and evolving environment. Interviews with mobility experts, sustainability specialists, dealers, and vehicle brand representatives highlighted market trends, barriers, and strategies. The Technological Innovation Systems framework was applied to offer a broader understanding of systemic interactions and feedback loops that shape the electrification process.

The analysis shows that inconsistent government policies create uncertainty for companies and consumers. This uncertainty drives companies to adopt reactive, short-term strategies, prioritizing sales volumes over long-term planning. Dealers face reduced margins and limited customization options for electric vehicles, disrupting traditional business models. Meanwhile, rising vehicle costs have shifted the focus toward business-to-business solutions like fleet management and mobility solutions. For private buyers, the increasing cost of new cars has turned vehicle ownership into a luxury, further narrowing the consumer market.

Public skepticism, fueled by misinformation and negative media, amplifies the uncertainty and further slows the uptake of electric mobility. Infrastructure challenges, such as grid congestion and limited charging options for households without driveways, deepen consumer hesitation. In the sector, skepticism toward electric vehicles also lives, with interviewees expressing a preference for internal combustion engine vehicles. This sentiment influences the transition, as companies remain cautious about electrification.

The Technological Innovation Systems framework highlights weakening feedback loops, particularly between market formation and legitimization. While financial incentives initially stimulated demand and public support, the phase-out of subsidies has reduced societal acceptance and confidence in long-term electrification goals. Companies face additional barriers in resource mobilization, as they must divide investments between internal combustion engines and electric technologies. This division boosts skepticism both within the sector and among consumers. Together, these challenges form a cycle of doubt that slows progress.

To address these challenges, companies must shift from reactive strategies to long-term ones, prioritizing sustainable mobility. These strategies include advocating for consistent policies, building consumer trust through practical measures such as test drives, and facilitating a robust second-hand electric vehicle market. Diversifying business models with mobility solutions can stabilize revenues while enhancing consumer relationships. Moreover, lobbying for plug-in hybrid vehicles and e-fuels as transitional technologies provides a practical pathway for broader participation in the electrification process.

This research investigates the acceptability of Travel Demand Management (TDM) measures among Dutch students and teachers to reduce train overcrowding by students during peak hours. Overcrowding has become a significant issue for the Dutch railway operator exacerbated by staff shortages and limited capacity expansion due to infrastructure constraints. The large number of students travelling during peak times, benefiting from government-subsidized public transport, contributes substantially to the problem.

The central aim was to identify which TDM measures would have the highest acceptability to students. A key contribution of this research is the development of an individual acceptability framework tailored to Dutch students.

Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 12 students from both HBO and WO levels and 5 teachers. Findings indicate that while students are aware of the overcrowding issue, their motivation to alter travel behaviour is primarily driven by personal discomfort rather than moral responsibility. The most acceptable measures among students were ‘adjusting schedules’ and ‘compressed workweeks’, which were seen as effective and fair. Increasing travel costs by 50% was considered effective but raised concerns regarding fairness and potential negative impacts on educational quality.

This research recommends further research into ‘schedule adjustments’ and ‘compressed workweeks’, with attention to logistical and organizational constraints. Additionally, it highlights the potential relation between socio-economic factors and the acceptability factors. Furthermore, future studies should examine the regional distribution of overcrowding to avoid broad, nationwide measures for region-specific issues.

This study investigates how Dutch municipalities can measure and use subjective road safety. A literature review was conducted, analyzing 31 scientific sources. In addition, gray literature and practical differences were examined, involving 13 different parties. Interviews were also held with six municipalities to discuss their perspectives on the definition of subjective road safety, the data they currently have, their goals regarding subjective road safety, the resources available for further measurements, and their most pressing needs. The study found that there is still significant ambiguity within municipalities regarding the definition of subjective road safety. For many municipalities, the individual’s perception of safety plays a central role. Furthermore, there is confusion about the relationship between objective and subjective road safety. Municipalities need more concrete goals to make informed decisions about whether to measure subjective road safety reactively or proactively. Policies can be developed based on these goals, but it is crucial that objective road safety is not compromised. Using subjective road safety as a measure to gain insight into objective road safety is not advisable, as the relationship between these two dimensions is not yet fully understood. While they coexist and influence each other, they function independently.

This study addresses the growing demand for expanded train capacity in the Netherlands, particularly during peak hours. The current rail network is constrained by space and high infrastructure costs, prompting the exploration of policy measures aimed at encouraging alternative travel behaviours among students. This research evaluates four policy alternatives—ranging from requiring students to pay full peak fares to shifting lecture times—assessing their impact on student travel behaviour and overall welfare using Cost-Benefit Analysis (CBA). Findings indicate that while three of the alternatives result in a welfare loss, the 'Shift Lecture Hours' alternative yields significant welfare gains. The recommendation from this research is therefore to collaboratively develop the shift in start times in education into a comprehensive set of policy changes that enjoy broad support from students, teaching staff, and educational institutions.

This study examines how sustainable commuting alternatives can be designed and implemented to maximise adoption among hospital employees, particularly considering non-standard employment schedules and location-specific challenges. Conducted as part of the 'Living Lab Sustainable Transport' initiative, the research aims to provide insights for the Academic Medical Center and Pon Mobility Nederland on how to maximise the adoption of eco-friendly commuting options, while addressing the unique challenges of shift work and irregular schedules. By analysing employee preferences for alternative commuting options, such as cycling, e-bike leasing, shared e-bikes and public transport, the study aims to offer practical recommendations for promoting a modal shift away from car-based commutes. A Discrete Choice Experiment (DCE) was conducted to assess key factors influencing commuting decisions, including financial incentives, travel time, and perceived comfort. Findings indicate that employees with irregular schedules require additional support, particularly regarding safety concerns and flexibility for off-peak commutes. Financial incentives, such as full public transport reimbursement, e-bike travel allowances, and increased parking costs, were effective in encouraging more sustainable commuting behaviours. The results contribute valuable insights for the healthcare sector and other industries facing similar commuting challenges, offering a framework for promoting sustainable commuting practices while addressing the unique constraints of shift work and location-specific factors.

This study investigates the effects of the first phase of the Dutch two phase process project delivery method design on the information risk, the client-contractor
relationship and risk allocation between client and contractor. The two phase process is a collaborative project delivery method which is used for infrastructure projects with the objective to reduce information risk and stimulate cooperation between client and contractor. As this project delivery method is new, knowledge on the effects of the use of this project delivery method is limited.

Using desk and case study research with semi-structured interviews and an organisational behavioural theoretical lens, this exploratory research shows that the first phase of the two phase process project delivery method reduces the information risk, can make good cooperation between client and contractor possible and may help risk allocation between client and contractor. This study recommends public clients to think about the use of a two phase process project delivery method design carefully and incorporate mechanisms to end the first phase.

Climate change stands as a monumental environmental challenge confronting the world today, with ongoing global manifestations. Within the transportation sector, the carbon-intense essence of petroleum-powered vehicles, finite fossil fuel reserves, and strides in technologies such as batteries, fuel cells, power electronics, and electric motors have expedited the integration of electric vehicles (EVs) into the conventional automobile market.
The escalating demand for crucial metals within renewable energy technology sectors has raised alarms regarding supply chain security. It is imperative to fortify the sustained and secure provision of these pivotal metals to ensure the forthcoming viability of EVs. Numerous nations have committed to achieving net-zero emissions by 2050, intensifying the future prominence of renewables, and underscoring the significance of securing metal supplies for EVs to meet the 2050 demand amid competing technological contenders.
Multiple knowledge gaps and challenges encompass the repercussions of EV proliferation on essential metal resources. Prevailing studies on metal scarcity focus on various scenarios, yet few target the exponentially surging demand for these metals stemming from the EV surge. While geological reserve perspectives have scrutinized metal criticality for EVs, this approach lacks a comprehensive panorama, neglecting influential factors such as geopolitics and competing demand. Furthermore, there exists scant exploration of alternative remedies to diminish reliance on critical metals within EVs and their consequences for metal supply chains. The feasibility of these alternatives hinges on their impact on vehicular performance, a determinant factor for broad acceptance.
The primary objective of this research is to address the inquiry: "How does the rapid proliferation of electric vehicles affect the availability of vital metals, and what strategies can be adopted to alleviate potential supply impediments?"
This research pursues a four-tier approach. Initial efforts involve delineating criticality for EVs and devising an analytical framework that encompasses diverse perspectives beyond geological reserves. A comprehensive review identifies socio-technical metrics instrumental in assessing metal criticality and their contributions to EV-related criticality. This informs the development of an analytical model, rooted in established frameworks, to evaluate metal criticality for EVs. The model then undergoes validation through expert interviews.
Subsequently, the research identifies potential bottlenecks in critical metal supply. Essential metals for EV functioning are identified through literature analysis. Building upon prior work by Habib et al., the research delves into geopolitical reserves and integrates future demand scenarios. Each metal within scope undergoes individual analysis, considering geopolitics and competitive demand, utilizing literature reviews to uncover potential supply bottlenecks by 2050.
The third stage concentrates on recognizing critical metals from the analytical model results and outlining alternative strategies to alleviate supply bottlenecks. Insights from academic and industry experts, garnered through interviews, illuminate the feasibility of alternative technologies and their metal consumption implications. Varied battery configurations and trade-offs are explored, employing a semi-structured interview approach to ensure thorough data capture.
Lastly, the research aspires to actualize alternative pathways to mitigate prospective supply bottlenecks. This involves examining existing practices that imperil suggested solutions and probing promising remedies to these challenges. The technological readiness of these solutions is gauged, considering their effects on EV design and performance. Policy approaches by global leaders, coupled with identified bottlenecks and solutions, inform actionable recommendations.
The pivotal factors impacting metal criticality for EVs encompass Geological Reserve availability to meet 2050 EV demand, Competing Demand Sectors, and a spectrum of Political, Economic, Social, Technological, Environmental, and Legal factors. An analytical model is formulated to evaluate metal criticality through each of these lenses. Key metals identified as vital for EV functionality are Lithium, Nickel, Cobalt, Copper, Aluminium, and Rare Earth Metals (REES).
From the analytical results, potential supply bottlenecks emerge for Lithium, Nickel, Cobalt, and REEs, stemming from diverse combinations of factors within the model. Expert interviews unearth alternative paths to circumvent these bottlenecks, including substituting REE-containing Permanent Magnet Synchronous (PSM) motors with other technologies, short-term adoption of Lithium Iron Phosphate (LFP) and Lithium Manganese Oxide (LMO) batteries, and long-term integration of alternative battery chemistries like Sodium-ion, Potassium-ion, and Solid-State Electrolyte batteries.
The readiness of these technologies is evaluated, alongside scrutiny of policies regarding Critical Raw Material supply and Net-Zero emissions, as observed in global leader initiatives such as the European Union. Drawing from this analysis, a compilation of recommendations is outlined for Global policymakers, EV manufacturers, and EV users. These suggestions seek to accelerate the integration of these alternative technologies within the Electric Vehicle Industry. The proposed strategies to veer away from metals susceptible to supply bottlenecks are summarized, culminating in practical recommendations for stakeholders, manufacturers, and policymakers.

The flood protection system in the Dutch Delta has to be adapted to accommodate the rising sea levels. When creating potential solutions, it is important to assess their social feasibility. An interesting aspect is the potential difference in opinion between different generations as there is an uneven distribution of the responsibility and impacts of sea level rise amongst generations. This led to the following research question: “What is the social feasibility of the solution directions for sea level rise amongst different generations in the municipality of Rotterdam?”. The solution directions are: protect, seaward, move along, and a combination of these.

This was researched by an explorative, qualitative research design. First, social feasibility was conceptualised through adapting the framework of Feitelson and Salomon. Secondly, the social feasibility amongst citizens of two age categories (16-30 and 60+) was assessed by interviewing them. After analysing the interviews, the conceptual framework was adapted to better fit the results. Finally, the academic and social implications of the findings were assessed.

The findings indicate that all discussed solutions are socially feasible. Of the three solution directions, most interviewees preferred the protect strategy, followed by seaward and move along. However, almost all interviewees preferred the combination of the solution directions. Even though each solution is thus socially feasible, there is an important precondition for a solution to sea level rise; namely, that there is a clear plan for how the new situation is going to look including the technical, financial, environmental and otherwise important aspects.

Regarding generational differences, the 60+ group on average dislikes the move along direction, whereas this is relatively popular in the 16-30 year group. Furthermore, interviewees in the 16-30 group graded all solutions relatively close together, whilst the 60+ group allocated varying grades. No difference in arguments was found and it is thus likely that citizens held different weights to different aspects.

The final conceptual framework shows that social feasibility is directly influenced by the perception of climate change and sea level rise, the perceived effectiveness of measures, and the perceived distribution of benefits and costs (nature, financial aspects, availability of land, maintainability, construction time, hinder to industry, novelty of solution, need for migration, (inter)national cooperation, ethical aspects, and positive possibilities). These are indirectly influenced by previous knowledge and demographic factors of citizens; the suggested mitigation measure and how this is communicated; and interest groups that spread information about potential solutions.

The development of automated cars has introduced the potential to reduce global CO2 emissions by enhancing driving efficiency. However, counter-research suggests that this may lead to increased CO2 emissions due to higher speeds and highway congestion. This research examines the impact of automated cars on train travel, focusing on their unique attributes: safety, motion sickness, and comfort.

In the densely populated Netherlands, where congestion is a significant issue, train passengers may shift to automated cars, which would result in an increased road congestion. Safety concerns in automated cars impact the decision for a transportation mode, and individuals are more likely to experience motion sickness while riding in them. Automated cars offer comfort features that are not available in regular cars, allowing occupants to engage in other activities.

This study investigates the extent to which safety, motion sickness, and comfort influence train passengers' decisions to choose automated cars over trains. A Stated Choice Experiment methodology was employed to assess these factors on the Rotterdam-Amsterdam corridor, one of the most congested routes in the country. The findings indicate that comfort is the most influential factor in the modal choice, followed by safety and motion sickness.

However, the study emphasizes the need for a cautious interpretation of these results since the impact does not directly correlate with the actual probability of a modal shift. While comfort emerges as the most influential factor, it carries potential negative consequences for the public transport sector and road congestion.

This research underscores the significance of assessing the impact of automated cars on train travel, particularly considering their distinguishing factors. Nonetheless, as this study relies on hypothetical scenarios, future research could benefit from real-world experiences with automated cars. Furthermore, extending the investigation to shared or fully automated cars would enhance the generalizability of the findings.

Many cities are planning car-reduced neighbourhoods, to provide more housing and stimulate sustainable mobility. Nonetheless, it is important to know what potential residents value, to be able to attract them. This study investigated the preferences of potential residents regarding the accessibility of car-reduced neighbourhoods, available amenities, green and amenities in public space. It revealed that the car is still very important when deciding where to live. Also, other forms of transport are important, especially if one wants to relinquish his car. Nonetheless, this study also shows that car-reduced neighbourhoods are able to attract car-owning residents, especially when a train station is available and cars have access, but with limitations.

The aim of this thesis is to increase the traffic safety by identifying what road infrastructure improvement strategies are currently used by the G4 municipalities, how they relate in terms of costs and benefits, the allocation thereof, and what complicating factors play a role in the road safety decision-making process.

Over the past decades, car ownership in the Netherlands has been on an increase. Besides being an environmental burden, passenger cars also require a lot of space. Mitigating the impact of passenger cars on climate change and public space requires a shift to a more sustainable view of transport, in which neighborhood mobility hubs might play a role. As a relatively new concept, mobility hubs are starting to gain attention in academia and practice. The first findings, however, showed that the adoption rate of mobility hubs might be low and no good image of the user can be formed yet. This research therefore aims to identify which user groups are likely to adopt mobility offered by neighborhood mobility hubs in the Netherlands. To do this, a conceptual model is based on the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology 2 (UTAUT2) and subsequently, a survey was distributed in the Netherlands (N=298). After analyzing the data using an Exploratory Factor Analysis, a Latent Class Cluster Analysis was executed in order to find groups in the sample population with similar preferences and socio-economic profiles. By means of the latter, four distinctive groups of travelers are uncovered. Two clusters have intentions to use neighborhood mobility hubs: hub huggers (45%) and hub-ready impacting travelers (25%). The other two clusters, anti-new mobility individuals (22%) and traditional car owners (8%) are not yet ready to use neighborhood mobility hubs. There are some determinants that are likely to play a role in future mobility hub usage: people with prior experience with shared transport and households who do not own a car are more likely to use neighborhood mobility hubs in the future. People who currently use a sustainable travel mode (train or (e-)bike) to reach their work and/or study are more likely to be the adapters of neighborhood mobility hubs. This also holds for people who have a social and environmental responsibility, innovative mindset and clearly see the benefits of using a mobility hub and who are (most often) higher educated and younger of age.